tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2079703741839017542024-03-05T01:19:59.650-08:00planetanimalzoneInformation Animal Dog and Pets, Animal in Habitat and Population, Snakes and Venom and Viper, Mammalia, Reptiles, Birds, Fish Ornamental/saltwater ornamental/underwater, Frogs,Unknownnoreply@blogger.comBlogger302125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-74638059887288531232012-12-12T06:59:00.003-08:002012-12-12T06:59:51.754-08:00Canary History From Africa<b>Canary</b>. Congratulations! Whether this is your first bird or your latest addition, there are a few things you should know to help your canary live a long and healthy life. <b>Canaries</b>, prized for their beautiful song and lovely colors, are a type of finch, and are soft billed. Although males are most often the singers, occasionally a hen will do a little singing. Except under rare circumstances, plumage is not an indication of gender; generally, if the bird sings it is considered a male, or singer; if it merely “tweets” and “peeps” it’s considered a female, or hen.<br />
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<b style="color: yellow;">HISTORY</b><br />Canaries originally came from a group of islands west of Africa known as the Canary Islands. The islands were inhabited by fierce wild dogs (Canis) for which the Romans named them. The wild canary first captured the attention of the Spaniards during their invasion of the islands in 1473. The little green/brown birds soon became popular with the soldiers and sailors because they were quickly tamed, they became well adjusted to their cages and the males sang irresistible, cheerful songs. The Spanish soldiers and sailors often took these birds back to Spain as souvenirs for their own enjoyment and as gifts for their lady friends. This practice became so popular that the birds were nicknamed “little sugar birds.” As the Spaniards recognized demand for these little sugar birds, they began exporting them. Over the past 500 years, careful selective breeding has provided the world with many beautiful colors and types of canaries.<br /><br />
<b style="color: yellow;">CHOOSE YOUR FANCY</b><br />Canaries are grouped into three basic categories: <br />
1. Type (body size and shape, and stance: Border, Fife, Gloster, Norwich, Frill, and Yorkshire)<br />
2. Color (green, blue [white/black], yellow, orange, red, brown, gray, and various combinations)<br />
3. Song (Roller, Waterslager, American Singer, Timbrado, and Chopper)<br /><br />
A Fourth type should probably be recognized: the “mixed breed” or “Kitchen Canary”. Although they won’t win any prizes at canary shows, these colorful little gems make wonderful pets and often have a hearty and varied song.<br />
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<b style="color: yellow;">THIS MAN IS AN ISLAND</b><br />Male canaries are very territorial, and two males should never be kept in a cage together. Two males in a cage is a recipe for disaster! Surprising as it may seem, your little songster will not be lonely without feathered friends, so long as you remember that you are his flock. He wants to be your friend, so talk to him, play music for him, let him watch TV with you, and treat him to the canary’s all-time favorite sound: your vacuum cleaner. If you must leave him alone for long stretches of time, be kind enough to leave him with a radio or some other audible entertainment. Remember that his ancestors lived in the wild, where a quiet jungle or forest means only one thing: danger. He will feel more secure if his daytime environment has a little bit of “noise”.<br />
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If you have your heart set on a pretty flock of canaries, consider a few hens, or perhaps one singer and some hens. Although three or more males may be housed together, they probably won’t sing, or only the “top bird” will sing. The male sings for two basic purposes—to flirt with lady birds and to claim his territory. Usually, he must feel like his space is his own for his song to be in top form. Also, if he is surrounded by ladies, well, he’s already won, hasn’t he? If you must have the pretty flock and the song, and he simply won’t oblige, consider putting him in a separate cage. But please don’t make him share it with a parakeet—he’s liable to get his toes bit off.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-34599151787701410122012-12-12T05:51:00.000-08:002012-12-12T05:51:26.834-08:00Lovebird Diet and Grooming<b>Lovebirds</b> are some of the best birds to have as pets. One of the smallest in the parrot family but do not let the size fool you. Lovebirds have big bird attitudes and playfulness. Many times when we visit our local pet shop we leave with bird, cage and a bag of seeds. General lovebird care is much more in depth than most usually realize. With a bit of time and an open heart we will explore things today with some ideas as well that might help keep you and your bird healthy, happy and forever friends.<br />
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<b>DIET </b></div>
The first thing to consider in taking care of your lovebird is diet. In the wild, lovebirds eat a large variety of foods including vegetables, fruits, grains, nuts, seeds, and sometimes even worms and carrion. So in keeping with their preferred natural diet you would try and mimic those things at home. Now we all realize that in the wild birds normally get tons more exercises than they do in the cage so the amount of high-fat foods we feed need to be limited. An all anything diet needs to be avoided at all costs. In the past everyone pretty much thought that a bag of seed was needed to keep birds happy.<b><br /> </b><br />
This is a dangerous way of thinking. All seed diets can lead to obesity, high cholesterol, and multiple nutritional deficits and can cause your bird to be less resistant to disease and even cancer! A well rounded diet is needed for to keep your lovebird healthy and happy. Feed a diet of fresh vegetables, pellets, nuts, and grains, proteins, such as eggs or cooked meat and pastas, cooked, everyday. Fruits should be reserved for treats once or twice a week. Seeds are necessary for nutrients in their diets so you should feed seeds daily but in small amounts.<br />
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<b>Your lovebird can eat pretty much everything you do with the exception of avocado, rhubarb, chocolate, caffeine or raw milk products. There are some lively debates about what not to feed your birds. A standard rule would be if it's bad for you, it's bad for them. Many lovebird owners cook for their birds and I cook for mine. Birdie bread is a great way to hide vegetables that some of the more stubborn birds will not touch. There are plenty of birdie bread recipes out there, check them out! </b><br />
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<b>CAGE </b></div>
Cage size is very important. Your lovebird needs to be able to stretch and flap his wings without hitting the sides of the cage or any toys. There are many cages out there and it's always best to get the largest cage you can afford for your bird. There are things to consider as well such as bar spacing. Bar spacing is very important because bar spacing to wide may cause injury to your bird as their heads can get stuck in between the bars. Birds love to climb so it makes sense that horizontal cage bars are the most desirable for the cage. Preferable at least two walls should be horizontal to allow play, climbing and hanging time for your bird. Perches are the next thing in line with the cage designs. Many cages come with wooden dowels as perches. Natural wood perches are great and it's important to remember that your bird will need different size perches to provide foot exercise and prevent foot sores or arthritis in your pet bird.<b><br /> </b><br />
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<b>LIGHTS </b></div>
A full-spectrum light above the cage will provide Vitamin D which is filtered out by window glass. Make sure the bird can’t reach electrical cords. Birds enjoy a window view but make sure the area doesn’t overheat and that there's no draft. Check by holding a candle steady to see if the flame flickers. Birds must be able to self-regulate temperatures by moving away from heat and the sun. Birds need 10 -12 hours of rest daily. Consider a cage cover.<br /><span style="color: yellow;"> </span><br />
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<b>GROOMING LoveBird</b></div>
Grooming is essential to your bird’s health. Birds have dander, it looks like little white dust specs on your clothes and this dander/dust isn't removed when your lovebird preens his feathers. That why providing a bathing dish or misting your bird is necessary. Your lovebird should everyday have a water source other than their drinking water to bath in. Many birds adore their bath times and will have so much fun splashing around and making a big ole wet mess for you to clean up. Misting is another option for bathing your bird. Spritz them with water in a fine mist and watch the fun begin. Those birds that like to mist might also enjoy showering with you.<br />
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There are company's that make shower perches; they are affordable and easy to use. We have birds that just love to shower with us. They perch and when we are done with our showers I change the shower head setting to fine mist. It's a great fun time after that and it's a wonderful excuse to spend more time with your birds. Nails, wings and sometimes beaks all need to be trimmed from time to time. This is best accomplished by taking your bird to your avian vet or your local pet shop. Birds have blood supplies in their toe nails and wings and can bleed to death fairly quickly if one of them is nicked and not taking care of immediately. Do not attempt to cut your birds nails, wings or beaks unless you have been taught by a professional.<b><br /> </b><br />
<b><span style="color: yellow;">ILLNESS</span> </b><br />
Keep wings and nails clipped to avoid accidents. Flour can stop bleeding. Don’t take birds outside unless caged and supervised. Lovebirds are hardy but all birds hide signs of illness. Learn what normal droppings look like so you can spot abnormalities. A sick bird doesn’t eat well, may not drink, may appear fluffed or show respiratory symptoms, or will sit on two feet or on the cage floor. Prompt vet care is essential. Provide warmth for ailing birds and during vet trips. Bring a recent dropping for the vet. During molts, provide stress food and extra protein. Offer favorite foods, Ike spray millet, when a bird is under the weather. Avoid spray products near birds, like hair spray, perfume, cleaning products, air fresheners or anything with fumes: nail polish, potpourri, scented candles. If in doubt, ventilate and move the bird temporarily. Be vigilant during holidays about non-stick bakeware, aerosol products and supervision around visitors. Make sure the bird gets its rest. Invest in a recent book about lovebirds or smaller parrots In general which has a good section on first aid.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-44375952605386061062012-07-09T01:31:00.001-07:002012-07-09T01:31:28.732-07:00Jallikattu Breed and Jallikattu Bull Baiting<b>This breed is also known as Pulikulam or Jallikattu breed. They are also known as Kilakad or Kilkattu. This breed is found in Madurai, Sivaganaga, Virudhunagar and Theni district. Large numbers of this breed were also raised in the vicinity of the Cumbum valley and the Periar River, were grazing areas of vast extent. There was a big breeder living near Madurai at Cholavandanniya (now known as Cholavandan) by the name Iyyengottai Mamzakkarar who owned 1000 heads of cattle and who also exhibited some at the Madura cattle show held 1907. The breed was very compact with stout legs and hard feet.</b><br />
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They have very powerful loins, shoulders, neck and capable of doing very hard work. This breed of cattle is comparatively small in size, but is very active and capable of much endurance. In the villages of South Madurai the small bulls were kept for the purpose of bull fighting or rather bull baiting and were known as “Jellicut” which means an ornament or leaves from the fact that the horns of the bulls or decorated with a vividly coloured cloth. In many points they resemble the smaller variety of the Konga or Kangayam but they are finer breed and give the idea that they have in them probably a strain of the Mysore blood. The larger variety of this breed was extensively used for coach work and they were capable of trotting continuously 5 to 6 miles an hour. Cows are poor milkers.<br />
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<b>Jallikattu Bull Baiting</b></div>
Every year, at the harvest celebration, over 100,000 Indians in Tamil Nadu state participate in the Jallikattu, the Indian version of the corrida. Over 200 bulls are released gradually into a crowd anxious to prove its manhood. Apparently, the rules are easy: wins the one able to stay on the back of the bull or hang from its horns for more than 50 meters. In 2006: 5 casualties and over 300 severely injured participants.<br />
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Every year, at the harvest celebration, over 100,000 Indians in Tamil Nadu state participate in the Jallikattu, the Indian version of the corrida. Over 200 bulls are released gradually into a crowd anxious to prove its manhood. Apparently, the rules are easy: wins the one able to stay on the back of the bull or hang from its horns for more than 50 meters. On top of a bamboo observation point, an announcer, who is also a referee, comments on any movement the bull makes in the crowd. The show, that lasts for about 10 hours, builds on intensity as time goes by.<br />
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The bulls are released gradually, sometimes more at one time. They are heavier than the European bulls, their horns are sharpened especially for this day and have been served some alcohol beforehand, to be more excited. Unlike at the Spanish corrida, these bulls don't end up dead at the end and neither too mistreated. As soon as the bull is released, its owner runs after him, generously slapping the participants who have been violent with the bull, especially if it is a small animal. Animal protection association lobby every year to forbid this type of entertainment, but it seems that the Indians are the ones suffering here: in 2006, there were 5 casualties and over 300 severely injured participants. At the end of the track, an ambulance waiting to be stuffed with injured people would leave regularly for nearest clinic. The bulls chaotic raids in the crowd make most of the victims to be by-standers. Usually, the participants are bull owners and they know how to protect themselves.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Jallikattu Bull Baiting</b></td></tr>
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Even if the awards are just caps, pots or some tin cupboards and the winners look ecstatic to receive them, it is not just about that. Is a sport to prove your manhood and bachelors get extra points in their race to marriage. For a while, they will be looked up as great public figures and their villages will talk about them for at least a few months after the contest.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-28871745693106711092012-07-09T00:57:00.002-07:002012-07-09T00:57:46.616-07:00Umblachery Cattle and Umblachery Breed<b>The Umblachery breed of cattle is also known by the names “Mottai Madu” and Mollai Madu”. Umblachery cattle which is the native breed of coastal plains of Thanjavur and Nagapattinam districts derive the name from its home tract Umblachery a small viallage situated eight Km away from Thiruthuraipoondi town in Thiruvarur district. It is believed that the Umblachery breed was derived by breeding Kangayam with the local cattle of Thanjavur district. These are light built and medium sized animals which were developed for work in the marshy rice fields of these areas. Its body is compact with tucked up abdomen.</b><br />
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In adult animals the predominant coat colour is grey. The intensity of colour varies from grey with admixer of black to full grey colour. The calves are red or brown at birth and changes to grey at the age of six to eight months. In male calves the horn buds are removed at about six months of age, the ears are pruned and hot iron branding done at face and sides of the body. Legs are with white markings of “socks”. Feet and hooves are white or partially white. The cows are poor milkers. Bullocks are small, swift and suited for agricultural operations. <br />
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Umblachery breed is an excellent draught cattle of Tamilnadu, noted for its strength and sturdiness especially used in the marshy fields for wed ploughing. Several genetic markers have been used for identification of farm animals. The present study was undertaken to characterize the Umblachery breed with chromosomes. The diploid chromosome number in Umblachery cattle was 2n=60 comprising of 29 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. All autosomes are acrocentric, the X- chromosome is submetacentric and Y chromosome is acrocentric. C-banding in Umblachery cattle was showed all autosomes with darkly stained centromere but the sex chromosomes were found to be C-band negative.<br />
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The Umblachery Cattle and Umblachery Cow population explosion and a poor distribution of food are among the world’s greatest problems today. Animals throughout the world supply human beings with milk, meat, egg, draft power, transportation, hides, fertilizer and many other useful products. Farm animal contribution to mankind in developing or under developed countries in the world is immense. Tamilnadu is the home of a few well-known draught breeds of cattle, such as Kangayam, Umblachery, Bargur, Alambadi and Pulikulam. Umblachery breed is one among the famous draught breeds of Tamilnadu. It is also known by the synonyms Mottai madu, Molai madu, Jathi madu and Therkathi madu. The Umblachery is a medium sized draught type cattle. It is strong and active with compact body and short legs.<br />
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The calves of the breed are red or brown in colour at birth. The red colour begins to change to grey at three to four months of age. Total grey colour is generally attained at six to eight months of age. In some animals, total grey colour is attained even at the age of one year. Genetic markers facilitate the "tagging" of individual genes or small chromosome segments containing genes, which influence the trait of interest. Chromosomal studies are mainly useful for gene mapping, identification of markers etc. The chromosomal studies in Umblachery breed of cattle are not available. Hence, the present study was undertaken to characterise the breed by cytogenetic parameters.<br />
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The culture technique was carried out as per Moorehead et al. (1960) with minor modification. RPMI-1640 was used as the cell culture medium. Benzyl penicillin and streptomycin sulphate were added at 100 IU/ml and 100μg/ml respectively. Autologous plasma or foetal calf serum 2ml, 0.5ml of whole blood and 0.1ml of phytohaemaglutinin (PHA-M) were added to 8 ml of culture medium. The tubes were incubated at 37ºC for 72 hrs. Colchicine (0.1μg/ml) was added one hour before harvest of cultures. The cells were subjected to hypotonic treatment (0.075M KCl) for 30 min at 37ºC.<br />
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The supernatant was removed after centrifugation at 1000 rpm for 10min leaving the cell button. Then the cells were fixed in Carnoy’s fluid (3:1 Methanol: Acetic acid). The cell fixing procedure was repeated 2 to 3 times and the tubes were placed at 4ºC overnight. Chromosome spreads were prepared and stained with 4 per cent Giemsa for 20-25 minutes. The chromosomal spreads were photographed; the length of chromosomes was measured with Vernier calliper. The per cent relative length of individual chromosome was calculated. The chromosomes were paired in the order of descending lengths for karyotyping.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-34742448507111627342012-07-09T00:42:00.000-07:002012-07-09T00:42:03.360-07:00Kangayam Breed<b>The Kangayam cattle is distributed in Erode, Dindigul, Karur, Coimbatore, Salem and Namakkal districts of Tamilnadu state in South India. The adult animals are medium in size with grey-colored body. The bulls have grey body color with dark grey to black markings on the head, neck, hump, shoulders and quarters. Horns are longer, curving outwards and backwards, then inwards and almost complete a circle or ellipse at the point where they approach the tips. A pair of bullocks has the capacity to haul a total load of 3787 ± 51.4 kg of sugarcane load over a distance of 10 to 20 km without taking rest (Kandasamy, 2001).</b><br />
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<b>The blood samples (48 numbers) collected at random from these animals in several areas of the main breeding tract were subjected to microsatellite analysis during 2005-06. Genomic DNA was isolated using a routine high salt method (Miller et al., 1988) and the quantity and quality of the DNA were analyzed by spectrophotometric measurements.</b><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKh1nowV1x0GOjf94TcW8qQzVorsJ8LNu1GtnmJPA3h7E0_6ZCb-if6XKeigp3Mf5KwFZIro7feyly3vJH8g3Cd4VElm5poH5ts8YwCr6luPfWNIcKv9ZbZ41sblxDB567Dacl-RR_SyUb/s1600/kangayamcow.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="" border="0" height="387" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKh1nowV1x0GOjf94TcW8qQzVorsJ8LNu1GtnmJPA3h7E0_6ZCb-if6XKeigp3Mf5KwFZIro7feyly3vJH8g3Cd4VElm5poH5ts8YwCr6luPfWNIcKv9ZbZ41sblxDB567Dacl-RR_SyUb/s400/kangayamcow.jpg" title="" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Kangayam </b></td></tr>
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<b> <span style="color: blue; font-size: large;">PCR amplification and microsatellite analysis</span></b>A total of 25 microsatellite markers (Table 1) were utilized as per the suggestions of FAO in the Secondary Guidelines for Development of National Farm Animal Genetic Resources Management Plans for global management of cattle genetic resources using reference microsatellites (FAO, 2004). These markers were amplified in the target DNA samples using thermal cycler (MJ Peltier). PCR reaction mixture (20μl) containing 50-100ng of template DNA; 1.5mM MgCl2; 5 picomoles each of forward and reverse primers; 0.75units of Taq DNA polymerase (Invitrogen, USA) and 100mM dNTPs was prepared. Amplification was carried out with initial denaturation at 94°C for 5 minutes; followed by 30 cycles<br />of denaturation (94°C for 45 seconds), annealing (51°C to 58°C for 45 seconds for various primers) and extension (72°C for 45 seconds).<br />
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The PCR products were electrophoresed in 6 % denaturing polyacrylamide gel at a voltage of 1200 to 1400 for a period of 2 to 3 hours, depending upon the size of PCR products. Single-stranded 10 bp DNA ladder (Invitrogen, USA) was loaded (0.25μg) in one of the wells as a molecular weight marker. The genotyping was done after subjecting the gel to silver-staining procedure (Cominicini et al., 1995). Sizing of fragments was done using Diversity Database (BioRad) software and by manual verification. Allele frequencies were estimated by direct counting. The observed heterozygosity was calculated as the actual percentage of heterozygotes occurring in the sample population.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4jNz2iWWnp7YdoCYC-ZXtzOi9yQWsc3Tf0cnZW-GYZkVOPoK_BUKwJ-eSOzWbv5ycNkjbTjntBM56Smww0UJwjePrEi0gbViDSs45__YZctYubsnbMPZHQhilAHy0L5E5_d4_JtXvbmvo/s1600/kangeyam+bull.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4jNz2iWWnp7YdoCYC-ZXtzOi9yQWsc3Tf0cnZW-GYZkVOPoK_BUKwJ-eSOzWbv5ycNkjbTjntBM56Smww0UJwjePrEi0gbViDSs45__YZctYubsnbMPZHQhilAHy0L5E5_d4_JtXvbmvo/s1600/kangeyam+bull.jpg" /></a></div>
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O n 1 8 . 4 . 2 0 1 0 an exhibition was organized by the Foundation at the Kannapuram Annual Kangayam Cattle Shandy was inaugurated by D r. Shaukar, Advisor (Animal Husbandry), Planning Commis sion , Government of India. He met farmers, livestock keepers of Kangayam breed and documented the Kannapuram C attle Show . M r . Samayamoorthi IAS, District Collector visited the exhibition and interacted with livestock keepers at kannapuram shandy. Dr. Shaukar and the Managing Trustee visited Bargur in Erode District to see the activities of BHCBA and report the threat faced by the Bargur breed to the Government of India. The chief demands of livestock keepers were eradication of Lantana Camara (an invasive alien species), reducing the grazing area of cattle, penning permits for members of the Bargur Hill Cattle Breeders Association. Theydemande destablishment of in situ conservation and<br />breeding centre along with veterinary hospital in the Bargur Hills, Anthiyur Taluk, Erode District, Tamilnadu.<br />
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On 23.4.2010 the managing trustee Mr. Karthikeya Sivasenapathy, Mr. Gunadharan Govindasamy, Trustee participated in the National Consultation on Traditional Knowledge, Access and Benefit Sharing and Amendment to the National Biodiversity Act 2002 conducted by National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India. The managing trustee raised the issue of gene sampling and piracy.They met Mrs.Sujatha Arora I.A.S.,Director,Ministry of Environment and Forests and explained to her the activities of SKCRF and LIFE Network. On 25.4.2010 Mr. Karthikeya Sivasenapathy and Mr. Sivasenapathy Natarajan participated in the ethno veterinary practice meeting held at Mrs. Indhrani Ramanathan farm at Kallipatti Erode district, Tamil Nadu.She is a passionate organic farmer and breeds Bargur Cattle.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-84572997811492997842012-07-09T00:23:00.002-07:002012-07-09T00:43:26.978-07:00Kangayam and Kangeyam Bull Cattle<b>The <span style="color: #6aa84f;">Kangayam cattle</span> is an excellent draught breed of cattle, distributed with varying densities in Erode district and adjoining areas consisting part of Dindigul, Karur, Tripur, Coimbatore and Namakkal districts of Tamilnadu. Animals true to type are seen in <span style="color: #38761d;">Kangayam</span>, Dharapurm, Perundurai, Karur and Palani taluks. Kangayam calves are generally red at birth and change to grey colour around six months. Bulls are grey with dark extremities. Bulls and cows are grey. Palayakottai Pattakars are known for the development and propagation of this breed.</b><br />
The estimated total population of <b>Kangayam Bull</b> cattle in the breeding tract is found to be 4,79,200. Of these, breedable females, breeding bulls and working males constituted 43.53, 0.15 and 22.79 per cent respectively. The overall mean fat and SNF percent were 3.93 and 7.21 respectively. The estimated total milk yield in partial milking was 540kg with an average lactation length of 9 months. Kangayam bullocks were heavier, with a mean mature body weight of 473kg. The average age at first oestrus, first mating and first calving were 29.5, 30 and 40 months respectively and calving interval was 16 months. Superior draught quality, tolerance to disease, adaptation to poor nutrition and drought condition and longevity are excellent qualities of this breed.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEha-PY_VrsxeqBk0zChuaVPwsC8DZjcBwS7Lp1pDPK1nsnTXZEsYxgcCKOXsQyJWxz4Xz0gh3wjW94c7-TxFPUYP2vwn4382gGtnZIgbJUd-E6zWLWWEA6eIilcdh499sKPibrNG4Dt8IxC/s1600/kangayam+bull.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Kangayam" border="0" height="172" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEha-PY_VrsxeqBk0zChuaVPwsC8DZjcBwS7Lp1pDPK1nsnTXZEsYxgcCKOXsQyJWxz4Xz0gh3wjW94c7-TxFPUYP2vwn4382gGtnZIgbJUd-E6zWLWWEA6eIilcdh499sKPibrNG4Dt8IxC/s400/kangayam+bull.gif" title="Kangayam" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Kangayam</b></td></tr>
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Assessment of genetic variability in Kangayam breed of cattle in Tamilnadu, South India was carried out using 25 bovine microsatellite markers. The mean number of alleles was 4.04 ± 0.09 with a range of 2 to 6 and the allele size ranged from 94 to 300 bp. The frequency distribution of alleles in the breed was from 0.0104 to 0.9167. The estimated heterozygosity was 0.6183 ± 0.01 and the PIC was 0.5628 ± 0.03. The overall mean within-population inbreeding estimate (FIS) value (–0.084) suggested excess of heterozygotes in the population. In addition, higher PIC value indicated the scope for maintaining variation in the population and strategies to take meaningful conservation.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgXo9_F4SDFWRsleChfc_dYVDwZmKJ1-KFrLd2DBKtAOmVvVtRQMLCoMToq4W7HtiNzBUW54FPc2cEL_ldonEehtN-iCCQBJuqKwx7B9Xz-M-yinegFvyDDHg1UHnFPbrJQQhyg0mGl19S8/s1600/Kangayam.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Kangeyam Bull Cattle" border="0" height="263" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgXo9_F4SDFWRsleChfc_dYVDwZmKJ1-KFrLd2DBKtAOmVvVtRQMLCoMToq4W7HtiNzBUW54FPc2cEL_ldonEehtN-iCCQBJuqKwx7B9Xz-M-yinegFvyDDHg1UHnFPbrJQQhyg0mGl19S8/s400/Kangayam.jpg" title="Kangeyam Bull Cattle" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Kangayam Bull</b></td></tr>
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The <b style="color: blue;">Kangayam breed of cattle</b> of Tamilnadu is best known for its superior draught qualities, adaptation to poor nutrition and longevity (Kandasamy, 2001). Bullocks are primarily used for transport of agricultural produce, besides being used for various agricultural operations. As per the estimate of 1996, the size of Kangayam population in the breeding tract was 0.479 million. However, replacement of Kangayam cattle in few areas of the breeding tract with exotic crosses is evident. Though the population size is more, the future of Kangayam breed is secured only if meaningful conservation strategies are followed to ensure genetic variability. The variability at DNA level would provide valuable information on genetic structure of the breed. The genetic variability in different zebu cattle breeds of India like Red Kandhari and Deoni (Sodhi et al., 2005), Hallikar (Naveen Kumar et al., 2006) and Umblachery (Karthickeyan et al.,2007) had already been elucidated. Therefore, the present study was undertaken using the microsatellites, which are powerful genetic markers for biodiversity evaluation, to characterize the Kangayam breed.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-78038165757187525302012-05-22T07:06:00.003-07:002012-05-22T07:06:43.766-07:00Caprellidae and AmphipodaThe family Caprellidae belongs to the Suborder Caprellidea and Order Amphipoda. These crustaceans play an important role in the food chains and webs . Also they contribute as food source for the benthic fishes and other macrozoobentic invertebrate. They are also regarded as a bioindicator for pollution. This study has been carried out at Borj al-Qasab, a northward coastal region in Lattakia. The specimens were collected from sub littoral region upto 5 m deep, in 18 months from June 2006 until November 2007 .The aim of this study is to identify Caprellidae, which are very abundant among Algae, Hydrozoans and Spongia, and so to add contribution to the national project of biodiversity in the Syrian environment. The genus recorded here is: Caprella (recorded for the first time in Syria) with three species which are: C. equilibra, C. hirsute and C. acanthifera (recorded for the first time in Syria),and Subspecies C. acanthifera acanthifera.<br />
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The caprellidae fauna of the Great Barrier Reef region is investigated. The study reports 22 species in 17 genera. Three new genera and seven new species are described (Hircella berentsae n.sp., Jigurru vailhoggett n.gen., n.sp., Mayericaprella arimotoi n.gen., n.sp., Orthoprotella pearce n.sp., Perotripus keablei n.sp., Pseudoprellicana johnsoni n.gen., n.sp. and Quadrisegmentum lowryi n.sp.). All species are figured and a key to the species is provided. An ecological study conducted at Lizard Island, northern Great Barrier Reef, showed that Metaprotella sandalensis Mayer, 1898 and Quadrisegmentum triangulum Hirayama, 1988, were the most common species in the coral reef system. Although the caprellids were present at most sites around the Island, they were abundant only on hydroid and sediment substrates.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQhnB8_4admVtlEDOsTQWvFcQJu4mpH1Figpju-EftzeRxg5gRqo4A9XHI7k5okpS8HmLodE3d9eO-TXW_0FMtVUy7bNtCoqxhSHn4ogm5D8GTfEjaRQVe8N4Ytr9NPA61wxXehbVIHpKs/s1600/Caprellidae.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Caprellidae " border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQhnB8_4admVtlEDOsTQWvFcQJu4mpH1Figpju-EftzeRxg5gRqo4A9XHI7k5okpS8HmLodE3d9eO-TXW_0FMtVUy7bNtCoqxhSHn4ogm5D8GTfEjaRQVe8N4Ytr9NPA61wxXehbVIHpKs/s400/Caprellidae.jpg" title="Caprellidae " width="400" /></a></div>
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Caprellid amphipods are small peracaridan crustaceans important as secondary and tertiary producers in marine ecosystems. They are common on algae, hydroids, bryozoans, sponges and seagrasses (McCain, 1968), and are important prey for many coastal fish species (Caine, 1987, 1989, 1991). Recently, caprellids have been found to be useful bioindicators of marine pollution and environmental stress (Guerra-García & García-Gómez, 2001; Takeuchi et al., 2001) adding impetus to understand the taxonomy and systematics of this group of crustaceans.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiG_GkB2wvnU1ST9CnwW9rUlBdQl8CQ0eByg8n748gk-Ak2QTxLqwXky_v-RvVtsypa_08qYq9YWouDk2NC4c5z9Xebv7snvv7rJ5sdse_cyn8KnShQFNsyKrgVN5eYoyPhIWYI_lwf4Yv5/s1600/Caprellidae-01.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Caprellidae and Amphipoda" border="0" height="291" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiG_GkB2wvnU1ST9CnwW9rUlBdQl8CQ0eByg8n748gk-Ak2QTxLqwXky_v-RvVtsypa_08qYq9YWouDk2NC4c5z9Xebv7snvv7rJ5sdse_cyn8KnShQFNsyKrgVN5eYoyPhIWYI_lwf4Yv5/s400/Caprellidae-01.jpg" title="Caprellidae Amphipoda" width="400" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBEIssVJ-CiSTFeLfNRQ8UjMEMi-p3dXg2H7oCxfzXq_aQlMWjoz3DJbwClLBoFjcHb98SZ1gnNnYAwKGOWCRuih5r08ZVXxrUEZe6J_P0c6DW9JIgkEt50pkL0L8XwNl6s5VBXaO70XP5/s1600/Caprellidae-02.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Caprellidae and Amphipoda" border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBEIssVJ-CiSTFeLfNRQ8UjMEMi-p3dXg2H7oCxfzXq_aQlMWjoz3DJbwClLBoFjcHb98SZ1gnNnYAwKGOWCRuih5r08ZVXxrUEZe6J_P0c6DW9JIgkEt50pkL0L8XwNl6s5VBXaO70XP5/s400/Caprellidae-02.jpg" title="Caprellidae" width="400" /></a></div>
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The <b>Caprellidae </b>of the Great Barrier Reef have not been previously studied. The scarce work existing on the Amphipoda of this area has focused on the Gammaridea; K.H. Barnard (1931) reported 14 species of gammaridean amphipods collected by the 1928–1929 Great Barrier Reef<br />Expedition, and Berents (1983) conducted the first study of the melitid gammarideans from tropical Australia. McCain & Steinberg (1970) listed 27 caprellid species from Australian waters, 14 in New South Wales, seven in Western Australia, three in Victoria and nine in Tasmania, but none from Queensland. Apart from the revision of McCain & Steinberg (1970), no taxonomic studies on the Caprellidae have been conducted along the Great Barrier Reef, and the only recorded species are those listed in ecological papers on benthic communities. In a list of the Crustacean species inhabiting the soft bottoms communities from Lizard Island<b>, Queensland, Jones (1984) reported two caprellid species:</b><br /><br />
Metaprotella sp. and Phtisica marina Slabber, 1769. Jones’ (1984) specimens, deposited in the collections of the Australian Museum, are referable to Metaprotella sandalensis Mayer, 1898 and Metaproto novaehollandiae (Haswell, 1880) respectively.<br />
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The present study reports on the Caprellidae of the Great Barrier Reef and adjacent localities based primarily on museum collections. Additionally, a field study was conducted at Lizard Island in October 2001 to collect abundant material and to study habitat use by caprellids in<br />a coral reef system.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-12740343397169771892012-05-22T05:53:00.003-07:002012-05-22T06:32:49.367-07:00Mantis Shrimp Amazing BeautifulStomatopod crustaceans (mantis shrimps) possess an incredibly complex visual system, comprised of compound eyes that contain more types of photoreceptors than in any other known animal. The <a href="http://planetanimalzone.blogspot.com/2012/05/mantis-shrimp-amazing-beautiful.html" target="_blank"><b style="color: lime;">mantis shrimp</b></a> eye’s optical arsenal includes monocular range finding capability, 12-channel colour vision, 2 channel linear polarization detection, and, in some species, the ability to detect and analyze circularly polarized light. Underlying this unparalleled array of functional capabilities is a structural diversification of a basic photoreceptive unit common to all compound eyes the ommatidium. In the following, the <u style="color: lime;"><b>mantis shrimps</b></u> visual prowess is described in the context of the design variations and the distribution of its ommatidia.<br />
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<u style="color: lime;"><b>Mantis Shrimps</b></u> shows the eye of the scaly-tailed mantis, Lysiosquilla scabricauda. It consists of upper and lower (dorsal and ventral) hemispheres separated by a narrow central band. A close examination of the eye’s surface reveals that each region consists of closely-spaced parallel rows of facets tiny ones in the hemispheres and much larger ones in the band. The hemispheres have many rows of facets but the band has only six. Looking beneath the surface reveals that each facet is the tip of an elongate structural unit, known as an ommatidium. All ommatidia are optically sensitive devices, but those in the band are the most complex, most functional, and most interesting.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-9VhH3P0QIEeNp1Ro5fXYbhjxIBmB5yTP7pFLsz7w0wDncV_ED4LsiGxGlwGoDuPgm2YrQUbla4ZVHxejF7udJynYxf95ncO7m0tPRD2vpKpqCNUIVIHFWIdfgBehUYFE6cqJKKvRx3Lj/s1600/Mantis-shrimp.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Mantis Shrimp" border="0" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-9VhH3P0QIEeNp1Ro5fXYbhjxIBmB5yTP7pFLsz7w0wDncV_ED4LsiGxGlwGoDuPgm2YrQUbla4ZVHxejF7udJynYxf95ncO7m0tPRD2vpKpqCNUIVIHFWIdfgBehUYFE6cqJKKvRx3Lj/s400/Mantis-shrimp.jpg" title="Mantis Shrimp" width="400" /></a></div>
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The various ommatidia share certain general structural features. In particular, each ommatidium<br />
consists of the following three sections, from top to bottom: (i) the cornea (ii) the crystalline cone (a hexagonal converging lens), and (iii) the rhabdom (rod). The rhabdom is a transparent light sensor/guide consisting of 8 photoreceptor cells a short cell (R8) sitting atop 7 long cells (R1, R2, …, R7) that are fused along a central axis. Each cell has numerous interdigitating, coplanar, finger-like constructs (microvilli) containing light-sensitive molecules. At the bottom of each rhabdom there is a conduit (axon) that conveys electrical signals to neurons. Within the framework of these general similarities, the various ommatidia have internal structural differences that give them quite different light-sensing functionalities. These will now be described.<br />
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Each ommatidium in the hemispheres is long and thin, with a rhabdom consisting of a short R8 cell on top of a ring of R1-R7 cells. There are two sets of microvilli distributed over the 8 cells. One set consists of parallel planes of coplanar microvilli, while the other set is similarly distributed in planes that are perpendicular to those of the first set. The R8 cell has both sets, but the other R1-R7 cells have one set each. This may have significance, as discussed below.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgEifBhGehukOB9CepK140iChNlzeVwUW7aOJ-k4wxrf_CAys3APLPz8VZKcU6uwEkqkFLNjhrYaEfz80PkWYCYWN7YTuzR-a6lozFGp9Myu-rFwnUkML-fSsUybsXaZdcHZPzOc2apCxVE/s1600/mantis.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Mantis Shrimp" border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgEifBhGehukOB9CepK140iChNlzeVwUW7aOJ-k4wxrf_CAys3APLPz8VZKcU6uwEkqkFLNjhrYaEfz80PkWYCYWN7YTuzR-a6lozFGp9Myu-rFwnUkML-fSsUybsXaZdcHZPzOc2apCxVE/s400/mantis.jpg" title="Mantis Shrimp" width="400" /></a></div>
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When non-polarized sunlight enters the earth’s atmosphere it interacts with atmospheric molecules and is scattered (preferentially in the blue end of the spectrum) in all directions. When viewed at an angle of 90o to the incident beam, the scattered light appears linearly polarized, meaning that the electric vector of the light wave is along a line that is perpendicular to both the incident beam and the line of sight. The sky is therefore full of linearly polarized light. Many animal species (e.g. bees, locusts) have developed an ability to use this ambient polarization to navigate even when the sun is obscured.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhw_spamCkwYbCV3zaWQjHTeBlfzLS3u1LGo5I-7CR1SBy_-kMbof8emMCVlknY2Hbimzi2GE8ltQYxYLOpF2CzKfpdp51VchRk7uAKBTQf2b9I5GwrbreT0PPJUj_GdYtBRMGXljziZR3N/s1600/mantis-shrimp-n.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Mantis Shrimp " border="0" height="263" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhw_spamCkwYbCV3zaWQjHTeBlfzLS3u1LGo5I-7CR1SBy_-kMbof8emMCVlknY2Hbimzi2GE8ltQYxYLOpF2CzKfpdp51VchRk7uAKBTQf2b9I5GwrbreT0PPJUj_GdYtBRMGXljziZR3N/s400/mantis-shrimp-n.jpg" title="Mantis Shrimp Amazing Beautiful" width="400" /></a></div>
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The parallel planes of coplanar microvilli is suggestive of sensitivity to linear polarization. The aligned light-sensitive molecules of the microvilli will sense linear polarization by oscillating only in response to electric vectors vibrating parallel to the molecule’s vibration axis. Perpendicular planes of microvilli should therefore detect light with perpendicular planes of polarization. In the R8 cell the presence of the two sets of perpendicular planes likely has a “null” effect a linearly polarized wave enters the cell, splits into two perpendicular components oscillating parallel to each plane, and the two components recombine on exit to regenerate the original linearly polarized ray. As if nothing had happened.<br />
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The two sets of planes thereby destroy linear polarization sensitivity (LPS). However, it is not clear what happens next in the R1-R7 cells. Since each of these cells has only one set of parallel microvillar planes, it all depends on what the the receiver of the seven independent signals does with them. It could either merge them to destroy LPS or use them to advantage. Which of these actually happens is still not known. <br />
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The long axes of the ommatidia in the first few rows adjacent to the midband are skewed slightly<br />
inwards relative to the optical axes of the ommatidia in the midband, which are perpendicular to the cornea. The ommatidia in the more distant rows have axes nearly parallel to the midband axes. It has been suggested that the intersections of these skewed optical axes from opposite sides of the midband, and hence intersections of the visual fields of these ommatidia, give rise to a monocular range-finding and speed-measuring capability. Experiments have shown that stomatopods have both monocular and binocular range-finding capability, the former being short-range and the latter longrange. Most of the ommatidia in the hemispheres, however, are parallel to each other as well as to the ommatidia in the midband, and therefore sample nearly the same narrow visual fields. No wonder mantis shrimps are constantly moving their eyes they have “tunnel vision”.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-68396957486144555452012-05-22T05:25:00.000-07:002012-05-22T06:37:14.267-07:00Horseshoe Crab (Limulus polyphemus)Despite their name, horseshoe crabs are not true crabs. The <a href="http://planetanimalzone.blogspot.com/2012/05/horseshoe-crab-limulus-polyphemus.html"><b>horseshoe crab</b></a>, Limulus polyphemus in popular name called <u style="color: lime;"><b>Horseshoe Crab</b></u>, is the only member of the Arthropoda subclass Xiphosura found in the Atlantic. Unlike true crabs, which have two pairs of antennae, a pair of jaws and five pairs of legs, <b>horseshoe crabs</b> lack antennae and jaws and they have seven pairs of legs, including a pair of chelicerae. Chelicerae are appendages similar to those used by spiders and scorpions for grasping and crushing. In addition, horseshoe crabs have book lungs, similar to spiders and different from crabs, which have gills. Thus, <u style="color: lime;"><b>horseshoe crabs</b></u> are more closely related to spiders and scorpions than they are to other crabs. Their carapace is divided into three sections: the anterior portion is the prosoma; the middle section is the opithosoma; and the “tail” is called the telson. <u style="color: lime;"><b>Horseshoe crabs</b></u> have two pairs of eyes located on the prosoma: one anterior set of simple eyes and one set of lateral compound eyes similar to those of insects. In addition, they possess a series of photoreceptors on the opithosoma and telson.<br />
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<a href="http://planetanimalzone.blogspot.com/2012/05/horseshoe-crab-limulus-polyphemus.html"><b>Horseshoe crabs</b></a> are long-lived animals; after attaining sexual maturity at 9 to 12 years of age, they may live for another 10 years or more. Like other arthropods, <b style="color: lime;">horseshoe crabs</b> must molt in order to grow. As the crab ages, more and more time passes between molts, with 16 to 19 molts occurring before a crab becomes mature, stops growing and switches energy expenditure to reproduction. Adult horseshoe crabs feed on a variety of bottom-dwelling organisms including marine worms, shellfish and decaying animal matter. The larvae and juvenile stages are preyed upon by many species of fish and birds and adult horseshoe crabs are known to be a food item for the threatened loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2fCDpjdEK82cl411B2tOYdaqQ4sT435l-S6k1stwf2VOx6aWsUwi3qiZiMWjX_Z497xYLqUEZVegmKRLXCJUwWWIJS7KFiknLCkIrYWIEJ1Gz3sp2oYO44f7yFPL7nEX1Qt-zGDq_cbzc/s1600/horseshoe-crab.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Horseshoe Crab" border="0" height="291" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2fCDpjdEK82cl411B2tOYdaqQ4sT435l-S6k1stwf2VOx6aWsUwi3qiZiMWjX_Z497xYLqUEZVegmKRLXCJUwWWIJS7KFiknLCkIrYWIEJ1Gz3sp2oYO44f7yFPL7nEX1Qt-zGDq_cbzc/s400/horseshoe-crab.jpg" title="Horseshoe Crab" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b style="color: lime;">Horseshoe crabs</b> are also harvested for use in biomedicine. A clotting agent in the crab’s blood,<br />
known as Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate (LAL), is used to detect microbial pathogens in medical<br />
intravenous fluids, injectable drugs and supplies (Rudloe, 1983). Biomedical companies purchase large crabs, which are harvested by trawlers or by hand from spawning beaches. The crabs are transported to the LAL production facility, bled, then transported back to the general harvest vicinity and released alive. LAL is currently used worldwide as the standard (FDA required) test for microbial contamination in injectable pharmaceutical products (Walls and Berkson 2000). Horseshoe crabs have also been used in eye research and the development of wound dressings and surgical sutures. In addition, horseshoe crabs are currently the primary bait used in the whelk and eel fisheries along the Atlantic coast.<br />
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This species is not currently listed as threatened or endangered; however, horseshoe crabs are an important species, both commercially and ecologically. Ecologically, horseshoe crabs are an<br />
important component of coastal food webs. In particular, horseshoe crab eggs are the primary<br />
source of fat for at least 20 species of migratory shore birds (Harrington 2001). Larval and juvenile crabs are also food for many species of fish and invertebrates, while adult crabs are<br />
favored by loggerhead sea turtles and sharks (Keinath et al 1987). In addition, horseshoe crabs<br />
have been shown to be a controlling factor in benthic species composition through their feeding<br />
activities. There is great concern about the harvest of horseshoe crabs in the mid Atlantic and how it affects the red knot, Calidris canutus, another imperiled species.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRvIDt4k33bTg0DpFX5l2dGEiifVt0OJJJe7fj6KTincvF1MUx_Y5XslLisa4eRaIYubbEWJ92qNmAvpAXbugDLPtbP-hhMM6mpWYcE7cFr-p4bVzaTWYeU-nxyh5GoZb-6AeMQrdfixw_/s1600/HorseshoeCrab.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Horseshoe Crab" border="0" height="202" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRvIDt4k33bTg0DpFX5l2dGEiifVt0OJJJe7fj6KTincvF1MUx_Y5XslLisa4eRaIYubbEWJ92qNmAvpAXbugDLPtbP-hhMM6mpWYcE7cFr-p4bVzaTWYeU-nxyh5GoZb-6AeMQrdfixw_/s400/HorseshoeCrab.jpg" title="Horseshoe Crab" width="400" /></a></div>
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Horseshoe crabs are relatively common in trawls in South Carolina. Based on research trawl<br />
collections, we are able to get some ideas of relative abundance. However, there is no estimate<br />
of population size at this time. The range of the horseshoe crab extends from northern Maine to the Yucatan Peninsula. They are particularly abundant in Delaware Bay, the center of their distribution, and in coastal areas between Virginia and New Jersey. Different populations of horseshoe crabs are thought to inhabit every major estuary along the Atlantic coast. Each population can be differentiated from the others based on size of adult crabs, the color of their carapace and pigments present in their eyes. In South Carolina, horseshoe crabs can be found in shallow estuarine areas and offshore habitats near the continental shelf.<br />
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Adult <b style="color: lime;">horseshoe crabs</b> are benthic animals. Early each spring, as estuarine water temperature<br />
approaches 20°C (68°F), adult horseshoe crabs move inshore to seek suitable spawning habitat<br />
along intertidal beaches of the sea-islands. The characteristics associated with preferential<br />
spawning locations are the presence of large intertidal sand flats near the spawning beach, a<br />
depth to reducing layer greater than 30 cm (12 inches) from the surface and accretional, rather<br />
than erosional, sediments.<br />
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Throughout the spring, females with males attached to their carapace follow flooding tides high<br />
onto the beach, where they excavate nests and deposit thousands of eggs. During mating, the male grasps the female’s carapace and fertilizes her eggs as she deposits them in the nest cavity.<br />
Oftentimes, other unattached “satellite” males may also fertilize some of the eggs. Mating and<br />
nesting coincide with high tides. Nests are excavated by the female on the intertidal zone of<br />
sandy beaches and eggs are laid in clusters. Spawning activity is especially heavy during<br />
nighttime spring tides. Females nest several times per season, usually returning to deposit more<br />
eggs on subsequent high tides.<br />
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After approximately two weeks, depending on temperature, moisture and oxygen levels, larval horseshoe crabs emerge from the nest. Larval horseshoe crabs are semi planktonic for about three weeks before their transition to a benthic existence. They then settle to the bottom and assume a benthic existence, typically spending their first two years in intertidal sand flat habitats near beaches where they were spawned. Adults return to deeper estuary bays and continental shelf waters after the breeding season.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-44055453121669232292012-05-22T04:47:00.004-07:002012-05-22T06:37:39.845-07:00Green Crab In HabitatThe <a href="http://planetanimalzone.blogspot.com/2012/05/europe-green-crab-and-green-crab.html" target="_blank"><b style="color: lime;">Green Crab</b></a> is a small shore crab. Adults measure about 3 inches across. The color of the dorsal (top side) of the shell is a mottled, dark brown to dark green with small yellow patches. Its ventral surface (underside) can display colors of green, yellow, red, and orange. Some studies have indicated that the color of the shell may be due to the amount of time the crab spends between molting stages. A distinguishing feature that can set <a href="http://planetanimalzone.blogspot.com/2012/05/greeb-crab-in-habitat.html" target="_blank"><b style="color: lime;">green crabs</b></a> apart from native crabs is the array of five evenly spaced triangular spines on either side of the eyes, on the front end of the shell. The three rounded lobes between its eyes may also be used to help identify the Green Crab.<br />
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<div style="color: lime;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Nutrition Requirements </b></span></div>
The <a href="http://planetanimalzone.blogspot.com/2012/05/europe-green-crab-and-green-crab.html" target="_blank"><b style="color: lime;">Green Crab</b></a> is an omnivore, meaning that it can consume many different species of plants<br />
and animals. Its prey includes mussels, clams, snails, polychaetes, crabs, isopods, barnacles and algae. In both field observations and laboratory experiments, the<u style="color: lime;"><b> Green Crab</b></u> has been observed to eat an enormous variety of prey items from at least 104 families and 158 genera in 5 plant and protist and 14 animal phyla.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Reproduction</b></span></div>
<b><u style="color: #38761d;">Female Green Crabs</u> can reproduce twice in one season, spawning up to 185,000 eggs at a time. Like all crabs, mating between <span style="color: #38761d;">Green Crabs</span> is a lengthy process whereby the male will attached itself to the female for weeks prior to copulation, waiting for the female to molt, and before her genital pores harden. As the female approaches the molting stage, she releases pheromones (a chemical messenger) to attract males. Mature females molt only once each year, typically between July and September. Prior to the female molt, the male partner typically pairs with her and attempts to defend her from predators and competing males. This pre copulation behavior, described as pre-molt cradling, may commence many days prior to the female molt and it is at this time, and for a relatively short period after molting, the females are chemically attractive to males.</b><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9Qo2Gl9_78nBzPBcf-krEBkEaMa2r0dTlZxh3wMkEG_4YBpxtbVETNESVdTvrnaZENdmYyfFD92KdO6JNyxVtlwPnQW72-fRC_o8-tnNXMabWDpMCEmS7WXtVesxGzM-Y-vE5xJepRHoC/s1600/GreenCrab.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Greeb Crab" border="0" height="263" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9Qo2Gl9_78nBzPBcf-krEBkEaMa2r0dTlZxh3wMkEG_4YBpxtbVETNESVdTvrnaZENdmYyfFD92KdO6JNyxVtlwPnQW72-fRC_o8-tnNXMabWDpMCEmS7WXtVesxGzM-Y-vE5xJepRHoC/s400/GreenCrab.jpg" title="Greeb Crab" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Lifecycle Stages</b></span></div>
<b style="color: lime;"> Green Crab </b>have six larval stages: 1 protozoea (hatching stage), 4 zoea (feeding stages), and 1<br />
megalopa (the transitional stage between the planktonic larval and the sedentary adult form). The total developmental time varies with water temperature and is estimated to be between 32-62 days. The larvae of Green Crabs can survive up to 80 days and are dispersed many miles along the coast by ocean currents. It has been shown that the larvae can tolerate a wide range of temperatures (41-86°F) and salinities (20 to 30 parts per thousand). The life span of the Green Crab is about 3 years for females, and about 5 years for males.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Habitat</b></span></div>
The Green Crab is abundant on any kind of seashore in shallow waters (upper intertidal to shallow subtidal), including estuaries. It has been located in areas well upstream from river mouths, indicating tolerance of low-salinity environments. Some studies comparing crabs with different color shells have shown that red crabs tend to dominant the subtidal zone and crabs with green shells tend to dominate both the intertidal zone and salt marshes.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLWts-5GCmurciHYH5v4VTbZmYKbJw6ffpwhATcSe-e4mklhbB8k5jn_UPO4XPoLn5rLWg0f2yLY-jHPrANDopQrW-EZevzG0G9_s3Ljs3kiojUHah7GCCl6PwfyfXUsvrn1YnqTWyXzJp/s1600/GreenCrab_C.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Greeb Crab" border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLWts-5GCmurciHYH5v4VTbZmYKbJw6ffpwhATcSe-e4mklhbB8k5jn_UPO4XPoLn5rLWg0f2yLY-jHPrANDopQrW-EZevzG0G9_s3Ljs3kiojUHah7GCCl6PwfyfXUsvrn1YnqTWyXzJp/s400/GreenCrab_C.jpg" title="Greeb Crab" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Historical and Dispersal Methods</b></span></div>
The native range of the Green Crab includes Europe and Northern Africa. It was first recorded in North America in 1817 along the Atlantic Coast. It was first collected in the San Francisco Bay in 1989 - 1990 and was most likely introduced there through ballast water. In 1993, it was collected<br />
from Drakes Estero, Tomales Bay and Bodega Harbor. In 1994, it was discovered in Elkhorne Slough and in 1995 in Humboldt Bay. It was first observed in Oregon in 1997, Washington State in 1998, and in British Columbia in 1999. The Green Crab has successfully invaded the East and West coasts of North America, and parts of South America, Asia, South Africa, Australia, and Tasmania. Its ability to tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions suggests that it could eventually range from Baja California to Alaska.<br />
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<b>The Green Crab can be dispersed by aquacultural activities, aquarium trade, live food trade, ship ballast water, ship/boat hull fouling, local currents, and by human activities such as boating.</b><br />
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The biggest concern for the Green Crab is its ability to displace native species through<br />
competition and predation. For example, they pose a direct threat to shorebirds, as they have similar diets. In invaded areas, the Green Crab occurs principally along sheltered embayments. It normally requires planktonic (larvae) dispersal, usually by human assistance or unusual oceanographic events such as El Ninos, to expand its ranges between embayments. The pattern of invasion and range extension for the Green Crab appears to consist of periods of stasis followed by rare events of long distance dispersal when conditions are favorable.<br />
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The importance of this observation is that even though the Green Crab has not been observed to have spread further north than British Columbia in recent years, a sudden change in weather patterns and currents can create a condition by which the Green Crab can successfully establish itself in Alaska. Even though it has not currently been observed in Alaskan waters, the potential for invasion will always be a possibility in the face of global climate change. Overall, there are seven qualities making this crab a perfect invasive species: a high reproductive rate, a high<br />
dispersal potential, a rapid growth rate, an extremely broad habitat adaptability, wide temperature and salinity tolerances, an extremely broad diet, and the lack of natural enemies such as parasites.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-39792143343803762472012-05-22T04:30:00.002-07:002012-05-22T06:37:52.896-07:00Europe Green Crab and Green CrabA native of Europe and Northern Africa, the<a href="http://planetanimalzone.blogspot.com/2012/05/greeb-crab-in-habitat.html" target="_blank"><b> green crab</b></a> has invaded the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America, South Africa, Australia, South America, and Asia. In North America, the distribution of green crabs now extends from Newfoundland to Virginia and from British Columbia to California. <a href="http://planetanimalzone.blogspot.com/2012/05/greeb-crab-in-habitat.html" target="_blank"><b>Green crabs</b></a> live up to 4-7 years and can reach a maximum size of 9-10 cm (carapace width). The life cycle alternates between benthic adults and planktonic larvae. <u style="color: lime;"><b>Green crabs</b></u> are efficient larval dispersers, but most invasions have been attributed to anthropogenic transport. The green crab has successfully colonized sheltered coastal and estuarine habitats and semi-exposed rocky coasts. It is commonly found from the high tide level to depths of 5-6m. It is eurythermic, being able to survive temperatures from 0 to over 35oC and reproduce at temperatures between 18 and 26oC. It is euryhaline, tolerating salinities from 4 to 52o/oo. It is reasonably tolerant of low oxygen conditions.<br />
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<a href="http://planetanimalzone.blogspot.com/2012/05/europe-green-crab-and-green-crab.html"><b>Green crabs</b></a> prey on a wide variety of marine organisms including commercially important bivalves, gastropods, decapods and fishes. Impacts on prey populations are greater in soft-bottom habitat and in environments sheltered from strong wave action. The species potentially competes for food with many other predators and omnivores. The predominant predators of green crabs include fishes, birds, and larger decapods. The effects of green crabs have been of particular concern to shellfish culture and fishing industries, as well as eel fisheries. Control efforts have included fencing, trapping and poisoning. Commercial fisheries for green crab have reduced its abundance in parts of its native range.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnyCWQw5u014mLvt2_sf5MEwyWsc2iZKy21pMQUJpKIrrziICuu5lvdq0Yc1qOizWZKmNyRQcngUe0ukMGHPW2xAhslDILrVofHY6q_7wxMxdUZlHvnjPK1XUjLyXj7J-9IXD9_rvi9Oik/s1600/EuropGreenCrab.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Europe Green Crab" border="0" height="317" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnyCWQw5u014mLvt2_sf5MEwyWsc2iZKy21pMQUJpKIrrziICuu5lvdq0Yc1qOizWZKmNyRQcngUe0ukMGHPW2xAhslDILrVofHY6q_7wxMxdUZlHvnjPK1XUjLyXj7J-9IXD9_rvi9Oik/s400/EuropGreenCrab.jpg" title="Europe Green Crab" width="400" /></a></div>
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The<a href="http://planetanimalzone.blogspot.com/2012/05/europe-green-crab-and-green-crab.html"><b> European green crab</b></a> or shore crab Carcinus maenas (hereafter, “green crab”) is ranked among the 100 ‘worst alien invasive species’ in the world (Lowe et. al. 2000). In many ways it could be considered a model invader. A native of coastal and estuarine waters of Europe and Northern Africa, it has successfully invaded the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North and South America, as well as South Africa, Australia, and Asia. It is a voracious omnivore and aggressive competitor with a wide tolerance for salinity, temperature, oxygen, and habitat type. A large number of planktonic larvae are produced, and dispersal occurs at all life history stages (Cohen et al. 1995).<br />
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<b><u style="color: lime;">Green crab</u> was first detected in Canadian waters in 1951 when the introduced New England population spread into Passamaquoddy Bay in the Bay of Fundy (Leim 1951). In reference to its arrival, Hart (1955) wrote:</b><br />
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<b>The green crab (Carcinides maenas), which has entered and spread throughout the Bay of Fundy since 1950, has become our most serious clam predator. It destroys adult clams as well as those of seed size. Feeding experiments conducted this year have demonstrated that it will also destroy young oysters and quahaugs. Studies of its spread show that there is serious risk of its extending its range to the Gulf of St. Lawrence where it might do enormous damage.</b><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiaWWEzWUNA3CQe2r0kg_jUmQXuGHZITh0MOPDNqo-UKePLFC1ACoEg8Sh4TIeamO2svdPuqbgn3A9O8ZILFLdAFVwuOu7baply7VLuA1SrlixH7rf1cj0DhLMlJ7YEa3QxyNYClIySZo9Z/s1600/Green+Crab.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Europe Green Crab" border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiaWWEzWUNA3CQe2r0kg_jUmQXuGHZITh0MOPDNqo-UKePLFC1ACoEg8Sh4TIeamO2svdPuqbgn3A9O8ZILFLdAFVwuOu7baply7VLuA1SrlixH7rf1cj0DhLMlJ7YEa3QxyNYClIySZo9Z/s400/Green+Crab.jpg" title="Green Crab" width="347" /></a></div>
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Subsequently, the <b>green crab</b> did arrive in the Gulf of St. Lawrence as well as western Canadian waters (Jamieson 2000). In all areas where the green crab has invaded, its potential for significant impacts on fisheries, aquaculture, and the ecosystem has caused concern. Numerous studies have shown the potential for green crab to adversely affect many ecosystem components, directly and indirectly, by predation, competition and habitat modification (Grozholz and Ruiz 1996). Because green crab has the ability to modify entire ecosystems, it is considered an “ecosystem engineer”.<br />
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Published estimates of the cost of green crabs in Canadian waters are incomplete and of questionable validity. Colautti et al. (2006) used economic losses attributed to 21 other non-indigenous species to propose median (52% loss) and half-quartile (20%) cases as projections of maximum and minimum cost range for any invasive species. Using these projections, the potential economic impact of green crabs on bivalve and crustacean fisheries and aquaculture in the Gulf of St. Lawrence was estimated as $42-$109 million (Colautti et al. 2006).<br />
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The only other published estimate of costs of green crab on the Atlantic coast of North America, a value of $44 million, has been shown by Carlton (2001) and Hoagland and Jin (2006) to be based on an incorrect citation in a summary paper by Pimentel (2000). Unfortunately, repeating Pimentel’s error, this estimate has been widely cited in the scientific literature as the actual cost of the green crab invasion of New England and Atlantic Canada. In fact, the $44 million represented an estimate by Lafferty and Kuris (1996) of the potential, not actual, cost of green crab for a hypothetical (at that time) invasion of the west coast up to Puget Sound.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-30938391542539548182012-04-07T11:26:00.000-07:002012-05-22T06:38:06.609-07:00Blue Crab Habitat and Spamming<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b>Despite its fearsome appearance and aggressive nature, the <span style="color: lime;">Blue Crab </span>is greatly cherished in the South Carolina lowcountry. Many gourmets prefer the <span style="color: lime;">blue crabs</span> sweet meat over all other locally-caught seafood. This interesting animal is often sought by recreational fishermen and it also supports a considerable commercial fishery. The <u style="color: lime;">blue crab </u>requires both inshore brackish waters and high salinity ocean waters to complete its life cycle. They are common from Massachusetts to Texas and a few have been reported as far north as Nova Scotia and as far south as Uruguay. The Chesapeake Bay, North Carolina and Louisiana support the largest <span style="color: lime;">blue crab fisheries</span>.<br /> </b><br />
Although other small swimming crabs in this family (Portunidae) occur locally, only the blue crab is of any commercial or recreational importance in South Carolina. The blue crab's scientific name, Callinectes sapidus, translates to "savory beautiful swimmer." Swimming is accomplished by skulling the oar-like fifth pair of legs, the swimming legs. These paddles usually rotate at 20 to 40 revolutions per minute, but they quickly disappear into a blur as the animal darts away.<br />
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Walking is accomplished with the three pair of thin walking legs. <span style="color: lime;">Blue crabs</span> almost always walk sideways clearing a path with their sharp lateral spines. The<i style="color: lime;"> blue crabs</i> most prominent features are the large and powerful claws which are used for food gathering, defense, digging and sexual displays. If not handled properly, blue crabs can inflict severe injury. Male crabs can be distinguished from females by the shape of the abdomen. The male has a Tshaped abdomen which is held tightly against the body until maturity when it becomes somewhat free. The immature female has a triangle-shaped<br />
abdomen which is tightly sealed against the body.<br />
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The mature female's abdomen becomes rounded and can be easily pulled away from the body after the final molt. Large males, often called "Jimmies" by fishermen, usually have brilliant blue claws and legs. The mature females or "sooks" can be distinguished by the bright orange tips on their claws. Males typically grow larger than females, sometimes reaching seven or eight inches in point-to-point width. Some males have been reported to grow to about ten inches.<br />
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<b style="color: yellow;">Mating and Spawning</b><br />
Mating generally occurs in brackish water from February to November with peaks in March to July and in October and November. Females mate only during the final molt when they are in the soft shell condition, but males are believed to mate several times. Researchers have determined that blue crabs release chemical signals called pheromones which attract their mates. Two to three days prior to mat-ing, the male will "cradle carry" the soon-to-shed female after a rather elaborate courtship ritual. These crabs are called "doublers." The male is usually one to two inches larger than its mate.<br />
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The male protects the soft female when she is vulnerable to predators. After mating, he will continue to carry her until her shell hardens. After mating, females migrate to higher salinity water in the lower reaches of the estuary or in the ocean. Spawning occurs in near shore ocean water about one or two months after mating in spring or summer. Females that mate in fall or winter usually spawn the following spring.<br />
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Females produce up to two million eggs, but only about one egg per million will survive to become an adult. Eggs are carried under the abdomen until they hatch. The egg mass is bright orange at first and becomes darker as the embryos mature and consume the egg yolk. Females carrying an egg mass are called "sponge crabs," and are protected by law in South Carolina. If captured, they must be returned to the water immediately. Sponge crabs usually first appear in early April and are common until August or September. Eggs hatch after about two weeks into zoea larvae which are 1/100-inch long. During the next month there are six or more larval stages before reaching the megalopal stage.<b> </b><br />
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The megalopae, which is about 1/10-inch wide, begin to migrate into the nutrient-rich estuarine waters. Very soon after settling in the saltmarsh creeks, the megalopae transform into the "first crab" stage. Crabs hatched in April or May become two to three inches wide by Nov- ember and five inches or larger by August the following year. Crabs hatched in early fall will be only -inch in width by winter. After one year, these crabs will be only three to four inches wide and will not mature until the following spring. A few crabs may live for three years but most live for less than a year. South Carolina law requires that captured crabs less than five inches in width be returned to the water.<br />
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<b><span style="color: yellow;">Growth and Molting</span><br /><i style="color: lime;">Blue crabs</i></b>, like all arthropods, must periodically shed their hard exoskeleton in order to grow. The smallest crabs shed every three to five days, juvenile crabs every 10 to 14 days and those 3 inches and larger every 20 to 50 days. Experienced crabbers can quickly spot crabs about to molt. Five to ten days before molting, a narrow white line appears just within the thin margin of the last two joints of the swimming legs. A few days before shedding, the peeler crab's narrow white lines give way to a red line, and fine white wrinkles appear on the blue skin between the wrist and upper arm. The actual molting lasts for only a few minutes as the crab pushes out the rear of the old shell.<b><br /> </b><br />
The resulting soft crab, which is limp and wrinkled, will swell to normal shape and usually increase in size by 25 to 35 percent. If disturbed, the vulnerable soft shell crab can swim and walk but prefers seclusion. After a few hours, the crab's shell becomes parchment-like and is fully hardened within two or three days. During the spring, usually early April, there is a "run" of peeler crabs that lasts for about two weeks. At this time fishermen will target the female crabs that are molting into mature crabs after the winter dormancy. These crabs can be caught in "peeler pots" which are crab traps in which one or two large males are used as bait to attract the females which are ready to mate. The peeler crabs are held for a short time in shedding tanks until the molt. After molting, the soft shell crabs are removed from the water and refrigerated for sale.<br />
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<b><span style="color: yellow;">Abundance and Predators</span></b>Factors controlling year-to-year variation in blue crab stocks exert their influence early in the life cycle. Water circulation patterns controlled by prevailing winds, can either carry the larvae shoreward or sweep them away. Thus, recruitment (addition of new individuals) of megalopae and small crabs may be largely controlled by the coastal water currents and the weather. Young crabs within the estuaries are vulnerable to drought, flood, or unseasonable temperatures. A relationship seems to exist between river discharge and survival of small crabs. Small crabs survive best during years of relatively high fresh water runoff which increases nutrient input and decreases salinity.<br />
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<b>However, too much rainfall can also flush the small crabs from the marsh. Predators claim large numbers of young crabs, and crab populations may vary from year to year according to the abundance of predators. Blue crabs are subject to predation throughout their life cycle and are particularly susceptible when they are soft during the molting process. As larvae, they are vulnerable to fishes, jellyfish and other planktivores. The megalopae and juvenile crabs are consumed by various fishes and birds, as well as other blue crabs.</b><br />
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<b style="color: yellow;">Eating Habits</b><b><br /><span style="color: lime;">Blue crabs</span></b> eat a variety of foods, including fishes, oysters, clams, snails, shrimp, worms and other crabs. At high tide, crabs may swim into the salt marsh to pluck snails from the tall grass. At times, they burrow into the bottom with only their eye stalks visible, lying in wait for an unsuspecting fish. Crabbers typically bait their pots with oily fishes which seem to work better than other baits. Presumably, the crabs home in on the oil or odor being released. Studies have shown that blue crabs can follow a current upstream by cris-crossing the stream bed. Crabs are opportunistic feeders, meaning they will eat what is most available regardless of their size, the season or the area they inhabit.<br />
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<b><span style="color: yellow;">Fishing Gears</span></b>The most common type of commercial fishing gear is the crab pot which is a cubical wire trap with two or four entrance funnels. The pot has two chambers, a lower chamber which has the entrance funnels and the bait well and an upper chamber that is separated from the lower chamber by a wire partition that has two holes. The blue crab's natural reaction to confinement is to swim upward. In doing so, they move into the upper chamber, thereby reducing their chances for escape. The crab pot was first introduced in Chesapeake Bay in about 1936, but was not widely used in South Carolina until the late 1950's.<br />
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<b><i style="color: lime;">Blue Crabs</i> are also caught and sold as part of the bycatch of shrimp trawlers and after the shrimp trawling season is closed, usually in January, trawling for crabs with large mesh trawls is permitted until March 31. Recreational blue crab fishermen employ several fishing gears and methods. South Carolina law allows individuals to fish two crab pots without a license if they are properly marked with floats bearing the owner's name. Fishing more than two pots requires a commercial crabbing license. Whether fishing from a dock or boat, recreational crab pots should have a marked float and enough line to prevent the float from being submerged at high tide. </b><br />
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Recreational crabbers should also be careful not to leave a pot in an area that would expose the pot and crabs at low tide. Pots should be checked daily and catches can often be doubled if the pots are checked twice per day. To remove crabs, pull the wire apart and shake the crabs into a tub or bucket. Some stubborn crabs may have to be dislodged with a stick. Remember that crabs can pinch, so be very careful about putting your hand in a pot. Drop nets and collapsible traps, usually baited with herring, can be fished from docks and bridges. Another effective recreational method called "dipping" requires a long-handled dip net, several yards of string and bait.<br />
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The bait, usually a chicken neck or fish head, is tied to the string and thrown into the water away from the bank. Once a tug is felt, the crabber pulls the bait and crab close enough to be quickly dipped from the water and placed into a waiting bucket. The beginner should be cautious when handling a blue crab since the pinch of the powerful claws can be extremely painful. (The inexperienced crabber should probably wear thick gloves). Always approach from the rear when picking up a crab. An experienced crabber can quickly grab the base of one of its swimming legs while holding the claws down with some object. Should a crab get a hold on a finger, it is usually best not to pull it off. First, try letting it hang; many times the crab will release and drop.<b> </b><br />
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If the crab will not release, use the free hand to immobilize the other claw and slowly bend the offending claw backward until the crab releases it. Crabs can be caught during all twelve months, but become inactive in winter when water temperature falls below 50-55 degrees F. As temperatures rise in March and April, catch rates increase rapidly. The best time of year to harvest large, heavy crabs is usually from October to December. Mature females are typically near the ocean, but large males are most common in the rivers and creeks.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-90228899042739366912012-04-07T11:04:00.002-07:002012-05-22T06:38:27.539-07:00Swimming Crabs Types Crab<b><a href="http://planetanimalzone.blogspot.com/2012/04/swimming-crabs-types-crab.html"><span style="color: lime;">Swimming crabs</span></a> have certain unique characteristics that set them apart from walking crabs. Almost all crabs have five matched pairs of limbs: four pairs of “legs” and two claws. The last pair of legs (those furthest from the claws) on <u style="color: lime;">swimming crabs</u> is flattened out into paddles. These legs are called swimmerets and allow the crabs to swim quite rapidly. They are also used to dig into the sand or mud. Most <i style="color: lime;">swimming crabs</i> have flatter bodies and more pronounced spikes than their walking crab relatives.</b><br />
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<a href="http://planetanimalzone.blogspot.com/2012/04/blue-crab-habitat-and-spamming.html" target="_blank"><span style="color: yellow; font-size: large;">Blue Crab</span></a><br />
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The <a href="http://planetanimalzone.blogspot.com/2012/04/blue-crab-habitat-and-spamming.html" target="_blank"><b style="color: lime;">Blue Crab</b> </a>has an olive green to brown body with points on each side. The underside of the blue crab is white. The crab gets its name from the brilliantblue colored claws and legs. The tips of the claws are red or orange and can be used to determine the sex of the crab. Males have red or orange coloration only at the very tips, while the red or orange in females covers more of the claw.<br />
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<b><span style="color: yellow; font-size: large;">Lady Crab</span></b><br />
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<b><span style="color: yellow; font-size: large;"> </span></b>The <b style="color: lime;">Lady Crab</b> is a small, rounded crab with a collection of red and purple calico spots. The markings serve as a camouflage both to defend against predators and to help them ambush their primary prey, small fish. Found on the sandy shoals just offshore, the <u><b style="color: lime;">Lady Crab</b></u> often buries itself, leaving just its eyes and antennae exposed.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Speckled Crab</b></span></div>
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This crab is identified by the large number of white dots on its brown to olive shell. The <b style="color: lime;">Speckled Crab</b> has a flat shell with points on both sides, similar to the Blue Crab. Like most swimming crabs, their body design works just as well for digging as it does for swimming. Their coloration helps them blend in with the sandy sediments. <u style="color: lime;"><b>Speckled Crabs</b></u> are often found in tide pools.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Walking Crabs</b></span></div>
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<b style="color: lime;">Walking crabs</b> get their name because all of their legs end in points. Because these crabs can not swim, they navigate the ocean and river bottom using their 4 matching pairs of legs. <b style="color: yellow;">Walking crabs</b> shells are generally more dome-shaped than those of swimming crabs.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Ghost Crab</b></span></div>
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These land-dwelling crabs can be seen scurrying quickly (up to 10 mph) along the beach between dusk and dawn. <b style="color: lime;">Ghost Crabs</b> have 1.5- to 2-inch square, beige colored bodies that allow them to “disappear” into the sand. Mainly a land crab that burrows in the dry sand, <b style="color: lime;">Ghost Crabs</b> wet their gills at the water's edge and the females enter the ocean to lay eggs in the salt water. While not very large, <b style="color: lime;">Ghost Crabs</b> can prey on sea turtle hatchlings. They also eat coquina clams and flying insects that they catch in mid-air.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Spider Crab</b></span></div>
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This crab looks like a large spider with a bumpy brown, pear-shaped body and long legs. <u style="color: lime;">Spider Crabs</u> are often found on mud bottoms, clinging to marsh grasses, or riding along on Cannonball Jellyfish. A <b style="color: lime;">Spider Crabs</b> rough shell collects bacteria and plankton. This coating encourages the growth of other plants and animals on the shell surface. Nicknamed the “decorator crab,” <b style="color: lime;">Spider Crabs</b> use this coating to disguise themselves. The shell decorations also are a source of food for the crab.<br />
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<b>Stone Crab</b><br />
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Growing to over 5 inches across with massive claws, the <b style="color: lime;">Stone Crab</b> is prized for its meat. Care must be taken, however, because the massive claw of an adult <b style="color: lime;"><u>Stone Crab</u></b> can easily crush the finger of an inattentive crabber. Because of their slow growth rate, only the larger of the two claws is taken at harvest. The crab is returned to the water where the missing claw will regenerate. <b style="color: lime;"><i>Stone Crabs</i></b> are purplish-tan in color with a thick oval body and black “finger tips” on the claws.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Hermit Crab</b></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: lime;">Hermit Crabs</span> are unusual in that their hard outer shell covers just their head and claws, not their entire bodies like other crabs. To protect their fragile bodies, <u><span style="color: lime;">Hermit Crabs</span></u> find and move into empty snail and whelk shells. Their bodies are specially designed so that their two back pairs of legs hook into the protective shells. They cannot be removed without destroying the animal. <span style="color: lime;">Hermit Crabs</span> found on Kiawah are not the same as those sold in pet stores. Our local <i style="color: yellow;">Hermit Crabs </i>live in salt water and cannot survive out of the water for a prolonged period.</b><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Marsh Crabs </b></span></div>
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Two types of marsh crabs are found on Kiawah. The first species, the Wharf Crab (also known as the <b style="color: lime;">Grey Marsh Crab</b>, <b style="color: lime;">Square-Back Marsh Crab</b>, or Friendly Crab) is found in the higher marsh areas and bordering regions. When you are out for a stroll, these small, dark-colored crabs with square, flattened shells often surprise you by darting across the bike path or beach access. The other species is the Marsh Crab, or <b style="color: lime;">Purple Marsh Crab</b>, which prefers the lower areas of the marsh where it constructs a burrow with a mud “chimney.” It has a square body like its relative the Wharf Crab, but has a thicker body. As the name implies, the coloration of the Marsh Crab is typically purple and they are often mistaken for young Stone Crabs. However the tips of the <span style="color: lime;">Marsh Crabs</span> claws are light-colored and their legs are “fuzzy."<br />
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<b>Fiddler Crabs</b><br />
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<b><span style="color: lime;">Fiddler crabs</span></b> occur in both sandy and muddy environments and are very common along creeks and mud flats around Kiawah. The <b style="color: lime;">male Fiddler Crabs</b> large, white claw is unmistakable. Males are typically seen waving this claw back and forth in a territorial display. Females in habit the same areas as males, but are often harder to spot since they lack a large, bright-colored claw. The male uses his single smaller claw (and the female uses her two small claws) to scrape up mud and sediment for food. They are excellent burrowers and their holes can sometimes extend down more than 2 feet. These burrows have an added benefit of aerating the marshes and preventing the “rotten egg” smell associated with some saltwater marshes.<br />
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<b>Crabbing<br />Crabbing is a popular activity on Kiawah Island. A simple crabbing set-up consists of string, a chicken neck for bait, and a long-handled net for scooping the crabs up. Remember, blue crabs must be more than 5 inches across the back, tip to tip, to keep. One of the best places to crab on the island is the Kiawah River Bridge.</b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-8824700791037637532012-04-07T08:14:00.001-07:002012-05-22T05:27:11.127-07:00Emperor Red Snapper<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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The <b style="color: lime;">Emperor Red Snapper</b> family <b>Lutjanidae </b>contains more than 100 species of tropical and sub-tropical fish known as snappers. Most species of interest in the inshore fisheries of Pacific Islands belong to the genus <b>Lutjanus</b>, which contains about 60 species. One of the most widely distributed of the snappers in the Pacific Ocean is the common blue stripe snapper,<b> Lutjanus kasmira</b>, which reaches lengths of about 30 cm. The species is found in many Pacific Islands and was introduced into Hawaii in the 1950s.<br />
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Although most<b style="color: lime;"> Emperor Red snappers </b>live near coral reefs, some species are found in areas of less salty water in the mouths of rivers. The young of some species school on sea grass beds and sandy areas, while larger fish may be more solitary and live on coral reefs. Many species gather in large feeding schools around coral formations during daylight hours. <u style="color: lime;"><b>Snappers </b></u>feed on smaller fi sh, crabs, shrimps, and sea snails. They are eaten by a number of larger fish. In some locations, species such as the two-spot red snapper,<b> Lutjanus bohar</b>, are responsible for ciguatera fish poisoning (see the glossary in the Guide to Information Sheets).<br />
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<b><span style="color: lime;">Emperor Red Snappers</span> have separate sexes. Smaller species have a maximum lifespan of about 4 years and larger species live for more than 15 years. Many common species grow to sizes of 25 to 35 cm and reach reproductive maturity at about 45 per cent of their maximum size (that is, 11 to 16 cm in the most common species).</b><br />
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<b style="color: lime;">Emperor Red Snappers</b> generally spawn throughout the year in warmer waters but during the warmer months in cooler waters. Many <b style="color: lime;">snappers </b>travel long distances to particular areas along outer reefs and channels to breed (in spawning aggregations), often around the time of the new moon and full moon. During breeding, females (~) release eggs (often more than 1 million) and these are fertilised by sperm released by males (|). In most reef associated snappers, fertilised eggs hatch within a day or two into small forms (larval stages) that drift with currents for about 1 month. Less than one in every thousand of these small floating forms survives to settle on a reef as a young fish (juvenile). And less than one in every hundred juveniles survives the period of 3 to 8 years that it takes to become a mature adult capable of reproducing. <u style="color: lime;"><b>Emperor Red Snappers</b></u> are most often taken by using baited hooks and hand lines but are also caught by using spears, traps and gill nets.<br />
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<b>Many </b><b style="color: lime;">snappers </b><b>are caught as they gather in large groups to breed (in spawning aggregations). Fishing in this way is destructive as these breeding fi sh are responsible for producing small fi sh, many of which will grow and be available to be caught in future years.</b><br />
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Minimum size limits for snappers have been applied in some countries (e.g., 30 cm length from the tip of the mouth to the middle of the tail). However, the particular species of snapper is not usually stated. Taking into account the wide variation between Emperor Red Snapper species, this size limit would be of little use in protecting larger species. Size limits should be applied to individual species. Some countries have restricted fishing methods to the use of hook and line only. Catch (bag) limits have also been applied but such a measure is usually inappropriate in community-based fisheries. Locally managed fi sh reserves (no-take areas) could be established but, for species that travel long distances to spawning sites, these will not protect reproducing fi sh. However, if spawning times and areas are known by local fishers, the following management actions are possible:<br />
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<b>- A ban on fishing during the times that fi sh form spawning aggregations, which may require a number of short closures (say for 3 to 4 days) around the periods of new moon and full moon, depending on the particular species.</b><br />
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<b>- A ban on fi shing at known spawning areas or sites; such sites may include particular areas along outer reefs and channels where snappers are known to gather to breed. Additional community actions could include:<br /> </b><br />
support for local national minimum size limits or (if not available) set community based minimum size limits at about 50 per cent of the maximum size of the species; A ban on the use of gear such as gill nets which catch too many fish, a restriction on small-mesh gill nets, enforcing a minimum mesh size may allow smaller fish to escape and grow to a size when they can reproduce.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-55548309475955260112012-04-07T07:21:00.000-07:002012-04-07T07:21:17.140-07:00Humpback Grouper Indonesian Fish<div style="color: lime;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Humpback Grouper</b></span></div>
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<b style="color: lime;">Humpback Grouper</b> is a serranidae family with widespread population in tropical and sub tropical water territory and product for seafood that is very favourite in world. As one of non oil export commodity, this species is the most popular among fish species living in rock and becomes important economic commodity of fishery in Asia Pacific region. Furthermore, it explained that one of constraint in Humpback grouper (C. altivelis) cultured in Indonesia is limitation of supply of seed caused by pathogen infection causing mortality more than 80%, even till 100%. Therefore, the problem needs an attention seriously and prevention because of loss resulted stress and corrupt in industrial cultured. <br />
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One of cause of industrial loss in grouper cultured is VNN attack. VNN causes retinopathy and encephalopathy which having wide host range. It is included one of epidemic disease almost in the world and inscribed in OIE (Office International des Epizooties). VNN is reported to attack some fish species as Japanese parrot fish (Oplegnathus fasciatus), redspotted grouper (Epinephelus akaara), striped jack (Pseudocaranxdentex), Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaeeus), tiger puffer (Takifugu rubripes), kelp grouper (Epinephelus moara) and barfin flounder (Verasper moseri), barramundi (Lates calcarifer), turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax).<br />
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<b><span style="color: lime;">Humpback Grouper In Indonesia</span>, it is reported that VNN has attacked most of grouper cultured with mortality of 100%. In East Java, seeding industry also get a loss as result of VNN attack in seed stadium and even in adult (data is not publicized). The symptom is fish whirling, happened sleeping dead or fish resides in base like death and existence of unnatural fish behavior symptom.</b><br />
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Important role of defense system of grouper to VNN is receptor protein expressed at part of grouper body. VNN target on grouper are eye, brain, kidney, flesh, liver and also gill. In this research, it will be seen VNN infection in grouper brain as agent that is very endangers because VNN can weaken fish nervous system so that fish will loss nervous control, happened weakness of motion, and finally death. The role of nervous cells to VNN agent is target of protein receptor which is important to neutralize VNN besides other organ as heart and kidney that functions for circulation and osmoregulation of blood in body fish. <br />
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Something that causes the mechanism of this viral infection is the bonding between VNN adhesin and its receptor molecule in grouper organs. Viral adhesin can be in the form of viral basic component namely coat protein and nucleic acid. Coat protein of VNN is primary factor in mechanism of virus infect the host <b style="color: lime;">(humpback grouper)</b> where the protein have a role in attachment of viral to host receptor. It has been known that one of adhesin of VNN is haemaglutinin. Further development both adhesin and its receptor can be exploited to produce a protein material for a diagnostic tools to virus infection and so its prevention for fish cultured industry. For this purpose, the research objective is to identify how a role and expression of receptor protein from grouper brain, heart and kidney mediated by nervous, heart and nephrose cells in infection mechanism of VNN.<br />
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<b>Characteristics of the humpback grouper, Cromileptes altivelis Common names: </b>Humpback grouper, panther grouper, mouse grouper, highfin grouper.<b> Size and age: </b>Max size 70.0 cm TL<b>. Environment: </b>Reef-associated; marine; depth range 2–40 m<b>. Climate: Tropical; 32°N - 23°S, 88°E - 168°E Importance: </b>Juveniles are commonly caught for the aquarium trade while adults are utilized as a food fish<b>. </b>Very high value in China Hong Kong SAR live fish markets.<b> Resilience:</b> Low, minimum population doubling time 4.5–14 years.<b> Biology and ecology: </b>Generally inhabits lagoon and seaward reefs and are typically found in dead or silty areas. Also found around coral reefs and in tide pools. Growth is very slow. Feed on small fishes and crustaceans.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-40038992807179267892012-04-07T06:52:00.000-07:002012-04-07T06:52:57.923-07:00Grouper and Groupers<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b style="color: lime;">Groupers</b> (class Actinopterygii, order Perciformes, family Serranidae, sub-family Epinephelinae) comprise 14 genera and 449 species of the subfamily Epinephelinae, or roughly half of all species in the family Serranidae (groupers and sea basses). There are 16 major grouper species that are cultured; the dominant species vary somewhat regionally. The most consistently abundant species that are captured for culture purposes and also reared in hatcheries are Epinephelus coioides and E. malabaricus.<br />
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Other important species are E. bleekeri, E. akaara, E. awoara and E. areolatus. E. amblycephalus, E. fuscoguttatus, E. lanceolatus, E. sexfasciatus, E. trimaculatus, E. quoyanus, E. bruneus, Cromileptes altivelis, Plectropomus leopardus and P. maculatus are cultured in small amounts. In the southeastern United States of America and the Caribbean, E. striatus, E. itajara, Mycteroperca microlepis and M. bonaci seem to have good farming potential. However, CBA for groupers in the western hemisphere has not been developed to any large extent, unlike in Southeast Asia.<br />
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Juveniles and adults of some grouper species live in coastal or lagoonal waters and estuaries, while others prefer the cleaner waters of offshore reefs. Their eggs are single, non-adhesive, and buoyant at normal salinities. The larvae of most species spend about 30–50 days as planktonic larvae. As they become juveniles, groupers settle in shallow waters where they seek shelter in seagrass beds, mangrove prop roots, coral rubble, branching coral or branching macroalgae. Some juvenile groupers are habitat generalists, settling in any available shelter, while other species have specific nursery habitats in which their growth and survival are enhanced. After hatching, wild grouper larvae eat copepods and other small zooplankton. They switch to larger crustaceans, such as amphipods and mysid shrimp, as they grow. Wild juveniles and adults eat fish, crabs, shrimp, lobsters and molluscs, although the genus Plectropomus tends to be predominantly piscivorous.<br />
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<b style="color: lime;">Groupers </b>range in maximum size from only 12 cm (e.g. Paranthias colonus) to over 3 m (e.g. Epinephelus lanceolatus). Most groupers that have been studied are sexually mature within 2–6 years, but some of the larger species may take longer to mature, e.g. Epinephelus fuscoguttatus, which matures at about 9 years. Most serranids are protogynous hermaphrodites. As a rule, some change from female to male as they grow older; others may change only if there is a shortage of males. In nature, many species spawn in large aggregations (hundreds to thousands of fish) with a sex ratio nearing 1:1. In some cases, several <b style="color: lime;">grouper species</b> may share the same aggregation site.<br />
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<b style="color: lime;">Groupers </b>are some of the top predators on coral reefs, and tend to be K-strategists demonstrating slow growth, late reproduction, large size and long life-spans which make them vulnerable to overexploitation. Also contributing to their vulnerability is the fact that they are sex-changers with a low proportion of males in the smaller cohorts, which means that heavy fishing pressure often removes most of the males (or removes fish before they can become male). Additionally, many groupers form spawning aggregations that are predictable in space and time, making them extremely easy to harvest. These aggregations can represent the entire annual reproductive output for some species. <b>Groupers </b>are sedentary in character and strongly territorial, making them easy targets for spear fisheries. <br />
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Groupers are greatly valued for the quality of their flesh, and most species command high market prices. Groupers are the most intensively exploited group in the live fish trade, and the high prices paid by exporters to local fishermen mean that target species may be heavily over-fished. In order to alleviate the pressure on wild grouper stocks, many nations have promoted aquaculture in the hopes of producing a more sustainable grouper yield. However, full-cycle culture of most grouper species is not yet possible, although several important advances have been made in recent years. For this reason, about two-thirds of all grouper culture involves the capture and grow-out of wild seed. This is known as capture-based aquaculture (CBA).<br />
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There are at least 16 species of groupers that are cultured in many Southeast Asian countries, including Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan Province of China, Thailand, China Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR), the southeast of the China and Viet Nam (Sadovy, 2000). Grouper culture is also undertaken in India, Sri Lanka, Saudi Arabia, Republic of Korea, Australia, the Caribbean and in the southeastern United States of America. Despite the huge popularity of live fish in China and Southeast Asia, only 15–20 percent of the amount consumed each year comes from aquaculture, as culture is principally constrained by limited and unreliable supplies of wild seed and the difficulties of spawning in captivity.<br />
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Grouper seed is collected using a variety of methods. Capture methods are generally artisanal and the fishermen employ a variety of artificial habitats. Some grouper seed collection methods are more damaging than others. Clearly destructive methods include those that result in high mortality, involve high levels of bycatch, and/or cause damage to the fish habitat. A further problem is that some methods result in monopolization of the local fishery by a few individuals. Destructive methods include scissor nets and fyke nets, which are already banned in some areas. The mortality rates that follow capture and transport are not well documented; estimates for over the first 2 months after harvest are quite variable (30–70 percent), depending on the quality of fry, the level of transport stress, and the presence of disease and cannibalism.<br />
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Because full-cycle culture of most grouper species is not yet possible, approximately 66–80 percent of all grouper culture involves the capture and grow-out of wild seed and the volume of seed caught each year exceeds hundreds of millions of individuals. When seed catches are compared to the numbers of marketable fish produced, the results strongly suggest crude and wasteful culture practices. Sadovy (2000) estimated that about 60 million seed fish are needed to produce the regional total of 23 000 tonnes of table-size live fish from culture annually.<br />
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Trash fish is commonly used for feeding in grouper cage culture, but its increasing cost, shortage of supply, variable quality and poor feed conversion ratios indicate that this form of feed may not be the best from either a nutritional or an economic point of view. A dependable supply of cost-effective, non-marine, sources of alternative protein must be provided if grouper farming is to remain profitable. Millemena (2002) demonstrated that up to 80 percent of fishmeal protein can be replaced by processed meat meal and blood meal derived from terrestrial animals with no adverse effects on growth, survival, and food conversion ratio (FCR). From an economic standpoint, replacement of fishmeal with cheaper animal by-product meals in practical diets can alleviate the problem of low fishmeal availability and high costs.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-90361978838725278502012-04-07T06:23:00.000-07:002012-04-07T06:23:26.546-07:00Paradise Fish Origan Taiwan Fish<b style="color: lime;">Paradise Fish (Macropodus Opercularis) </b><br />
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The <b style="color: lime;">Paradise Fish (Macropodus opercularis)</b> is naturally distributed in western Taiwan, but is<br />rare now because of such factors as environment pollution and habitat loss. Conservation<br />of this animal in Taiwan is becoming more urgent. Some closely related species, such as<br />Chinese paradise fish (M. chinensis), are difficult to distinguish with morphological characters. We sequenced and compared the control region of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to reveal the genetic distance and molecular phylogeny of paradise fish populations from different geographical regions: Taiwan, Singapore, and mainland China.<br />
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The interspecific distance between M. opercularis (Taiwan, Singapore) and M. chinensis (Zhejiang, Jilin) is 0.1341 ±0.0124, much more highly divergent than the distance between the Taiwanese and Singaporean populations, or within the Chinese populations. Five haplotypes from 11 specimens of the Taiwanese native population have been identified from a 1034-bp-length of mtDNA. However, the lower haplotypic diversity (H = 0.68) indicates a decreasing population in Taiwan, in contrast with the M. chinensis (H = 0.89). In addition, the unique genotype in Miaoli and Taichung may imply their subdivision because of exotic input of fish from a different geographic region. Thus conservation work should focus on avoiding the random release of paradise fishes into the wild. <br />
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Effects of temperature and floating materials on breeding by the paradise fish (Macropodus opercularis) in the non-reproductive season. Zoological Studies 45(4): 475-482. The paradise fish, Macropodus opercularis, is native to Taiwan, and its reproductive season spans from Mar. to Oct. This experiment was conducted to examine <b style="color: lime;">Paradise Fish breeding</b> in winter, a non-reproductive season, using different treatments of water temperatures (23, 27, and 31C) and floating materials (floating ferns, green Styrofoam pieces, and no floating material). The fish built 1-3 bubble nests during the 20 d experimental period. A significant negative correlation was found between the temperature and the frequency of nest building, indicating that a high water temperature of 31 C was unfavorable for building nests.<br />
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In the treatments with floating ferns and green Styrofoam pieces, the <b style="color: lime;">paradise fish</b> built more nests than in the treatment without floating materials. The sizes of the 1st bubble nests built were significantly larger at 27 and 31..C than at 23..C. Floating materials played an important role after the fish acclimated to the temperature. In the treatment with green Styrofoam pieces, the fish built smaller-sized 2nd nests than in the treatment without floating materials. One female in a tank treated at 27..C with green Styrofoam pieces laid 421 eggs during the 20 d experimental period. Two hundred and eighty larvae hatched the next day, for a hatching rate of 66.5%. In short, the paradise fish can breed at appropriate temperatures, such as 27..C, in winter, normally a non-reproductive season, and artificial floating materials are conducive to successful reproduction.<br />
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<b>The <span style="color: lime;">Paradise Fish</span>, Macropodus opercularis (Linnaeus), belongs to the family Anabantidae in which most of the members are..bubble-nest.. builders. This species is characterized by the presence of a labyrinthiform organ, which is derived from the 1st gill arch and enables the fish to breathe in the air. Floating plants are usually dominant in spawning areas of the fish. Plants or other substrates are necessary to hold the nest in place. The <span style="color: lime;">paradise fish</span> sexually matures at approximately 6 mo, breeds well in aquaria, and reaches a maximum size of approximately 80-100 mm in standard length.</b><br />
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<b>The <span style="color: lime;">paradise fish</span> is native to China and nearby islands. It is widely distributed in eastern Asia from the Yangtze River basin to Hainan I. in China, as well as Taiwan and North Vietnam (Freyhof and Herder 2002). The range of the fish, is habitation is 20-30 N and 102-122 E, and its climatic temperature range of 16-26 C indicates that it is a subtropical and temperate fish. Indigenous to Taiwan, it is commonly known as the Formosan fighting fish, three-spot fish, and Chinese unicorn fish (Chen and Fang 1999, Shao and Chen 2003). Prior to the mid-1970s, the fish was widely distributed in lowland areas of Taiwan where it inhabited bodies of fresh water ranging in size from rice paddy fields to lakes.</b><br />
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Salvinia natans, Lemna minor, and Pistia stratiotes are floating plants to which the fish, is bubble nests are commonly found to be attached in Taiwan (Jan 1994, Huang et al. 1998). The reproductive season of the fish spans from Mar. to Oct. in Taiwan (Jan 1994), and is particularly concentrated from May to July (Chen and Fung 1999, Shao and Chen 2003). In the last few decades, this fish has become rare in Taiwan (Shen 1993, Chen and Fang 1999). The construction of farmland irrigation canals and ditches and the heavy use of pesticides and insecticides in agriculture may be the main reasons why its abundance has fallen (Tzeng 1990, Young 1995). For the protection of the fish, it was listed as a rare and valuable species in the Wildlife Conservation Law on 31 Aug. 1989 by the Taiwanese government in order to ban the catching, killing, and selling of the species (ESRI 1996). However, to the present, studies of the conservation and enhancement of this fish species are still rare in Taiwan.<br />
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Temperature is one of the most potent environmental factors that influence the development and growth of fish. Food intake, catabolism, and conversion rates of the food consumed by fish vary with body temperature. The body temperatures of most fish are close to and do not exceed 1..C difference from the ambient water temperature, suggesting that water temperature plays an important role in the life of fish. In temperate regions, the timing of reproduction in annually spawning species is controlled by an endogenous cycle that in turn is entrained by environmental cues. Water temperature is one of the most important annual environmental cues.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-85342016276867139262012-04-07T05:47:00.000-07:002012-04-07T05:47:58.654-07:00Guppy (Poecilia Reticulata) and Predators<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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Predators of <b style="color: lime;">Guppy </b>are widely assumed to create selection that shapes the evolution of prey escape abilities. However, this assumption is difficult to test directly due to the challenge of recording both predation and its evolutionary consequences in the wild. We examined these events by studying natural and experimental populations of Trinidadian <b style="color: lime;">guppies</b>, <b style="color: lime;">Poecilia reticulata</b>, which occur in distinct high-predation and low-predation environments within streams.<b><br /> </b><br />
Importantly, in the last two decades several populations of <u><b>guppies </b></u>have been experimentally introduced from one type of predatory environment into the other, allowing measurements of the consequences of change. We used this system to test two hypotheses: First, that changes in predatory environments create phenotypic selection favoring changes in escape ability of guppies, and second, that this selection can result in rapid evolution.<br />
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For the first test we compared escape ability of wild caught <b style="color: lime;">guppies </b>from high- versus low-predation environments by measuring survival rates during staged encounters with a major predator, the pike cichlid Crenicichla alta. We used <span style="color: lime;">guppies </span>from three streams, comparing two within-stream pairs of natural populations and three within-stream pairs of an introduced population versus its natural source population. In every comparison, <b style="color: lime;">guppy fish</b> from the high-predation population showed higher survival. These multiple, parallel divergences in <b style="color: lime;">guppy </b>survival phenotype suggest that predatory environment does create selection of escape ability.<br />
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We tested our second hypothesis by rearing <b style="color: lime;">guppies </b>in common garden conditions in the laboratory, then repeating the earlier experiments using the F2 generation. As before, each comparison resulted in higher survival of guppies descended from the high-predation populations, demonstrating that population differences in escape ability have a genetic basis. These results also show that escape ability can evolve very rapidly in nature, that is, within 26–36 generations in the introduced populations. Interestingly, we found rapid evolutionary loss of escape ability in populations introduced into low-predation environments, suggesting that steep fitness trade-offs may influence the evolution of escape traits.<br />
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<b>Sexual selection is thought to be opposed by natural selection such that ornamental traits express a balance between these two antagonistic influences. Phenotypic variation among populations may indicate local shifts in this balance, or that different stable ‘solutions’ are possible, but testing these alternatives presents a major challenge. In the</b><b style="color: lime;"> guppy (Poecilia reticulata)</b><b>, a small freshwater fish with male-limited ornamental coloration, these issues can be addressed by transplanting fish among sites of varying predation pressure, thus effectively manipulating the strength and nature of natural selection. Here, we contrast the evolutionary outcome of two such introductions conducted in the Trinidadian El Cedro and Aripo Rivers. </b><br />
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We use sophisticated colour appraisal methods that account for full spectrum colour variation<br />and which incorporate the very latest visual sensitivity data for guppies and their predators. Our data indicate that ornamentation evolved along different trajectories: whereas Aripo males evolved more numerous and/or larger orange, black and iridescent markings, El Cedro males only evolved more extensive and brighter iridescence. Examination of the El Cedro experiment also revealed little or no ornamental evolution at the control site over 29 years, which contrasts markedly with the rapid (approx. 2–3 years) changes reported for introduction populations.<br />
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Finally, whole colour-pattern analysis suggested that the greatest visual difference between El Cedro introduction and control fish would be perceived by the two most salient viewers: guppies and the putatively dangerous predator Crenicichla alta. We discuss whether and how these evolutionary trajectories may result from founder effects, population-specific mate preferences and/or sensory drive.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-50716766541395893612012-04-07T05:19:00.000-07:002012-04-07T05:19:53.126-07:00Oscar Fish Population and Maintenance<b style="color: #ffd966;">Oscar Fish</b><span style="color: #ffd966;"> </span>is not known to exist in the wild in the Northern Territory. However, it is a popular aquarium fish throughout Australia and is considered to have the potential to become a major pest of wet tropical regions of northern Australia. Typically, oscar grows to about 200-280 mm, Young <b style="color: #6aa84f;">Oscar fish</b> have wavy white and orange markings on a black background; colouration of the body and fins of adults is usually very dark, with olive blue-green and mustard colours, highlighting large dark blotches. Some have orange or red markings.<br />
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The base of the caudal fin has a large spot or ocellus bordered with red. Fin colouration varies; usually it is very dark, occasionally there are ocelli present and eyes are red. This species does not tolerate cold waters. A lower lethal temperature of 12.9°C has been reported for specimens under experimental conditions. The natural diet of <b style="color: lime;">oscar </b>includes fruit, snails, insects and small fish. Other items such as reptiles may be opportunistically eaten. It is an omnivore with carnivorous tendencies. <b style="color: #6aa84f;">Oscar Fish</b> is renowned for its aggressiveness. It may have a significant impact on native fishes through direct predation and competition for breeding areas.<br />
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<b style="color: lime;">Oscars</b><span style="color: lime;"> </span>mature early (10 to 12 months), have relatively high fecundity and are territorial during the breeding season. Spawning normally takes place in still waters on flat, solid surfaces. The female typically lays about 3,000 eggs and both parents are occasionally seen guarding hundreds of young in shallow water along shorelines.<br />
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<b>DISTRIBUTION</b></div>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Oscar</span> is a cichlid native to the Amazon basin and has worldwide commercial value as an ornamental species. Over its native range oscar is found in the Amazon, Orinoco and La Plata River systems in South America. Wild populations of oscar are not known to exist in the Northern Territory. However, populations of this exotic fish do exist along the Central Queensland coast and it is considered to have the potential to become a major aquatic pest of wet tropical regions of northern Australia.</b><br />
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<b>Oscar In Aquarium</b></div>
When selecting filtration for an oscar tank, you will need to keep a few things in mind. First and foremost, you will need to remember that <b style="color: lime;">Oscars </b>are very big and very messy creatures, probably messier than any other fish you have kept. They eat a lot, and a lot of what they eat ends up coming out of their gills in a mashed-up mess. The rest comes out the back end as prodigious amounts of feces. Combine that with the relatively large amount of urine produced by <u style="color: lime;"><b>Oscars</b></u>, and you have substantial hurdles for both biological and mechanical filtration.<br />
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A second consideration is the size of the tank. If you need help selecting an apropriate sized tank, read this article, and this article. Larger tanks will need more filtration, both to provide adequate water movement, and to ensure that all water in the tank passes through the filtration with a reasonable frequency. A third consideration is your budget. Different types of filters cost varying amounts. However, as we will examine later in this article, the old axim “you get what you pay for” is quite true in fishkeeping.<br />
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When I talk about wet/dry filtration, I am talking about sumps that sit under the tank, not the “bio-wheel” filters produced by Marineland. Wet/dry filters are the kings of biological filtration.<br />They achive this superior biological filtration by running water across massive amounts of biological media in the presence of air. Different designs achieve this in different ways, but the principles involved remain the same. The only drawback of wet/dry filters is that they normally either lack, or are very weak in the area of mechanical filtration.<br />
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As mentioned above, mechanical filtration is quite important in an oscar tank. Therefore, if you use a wet/dry set-up, you will need to make sure that mechanical filtration is covered. This can be done by either modifying your wet/dry system to include mechanical filtration directly, or by adding supplemental filters to perform the mechanical filtration role.<br />
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<b style="color: #38761d;">Filters</b><br />Modern cannisters are the Jacks-of-all-trades of the filtration world. They do this by providing large amounts of space for media that can be customized to fit your specific needs. They can be optimized to provide mainly biological, mainly mechanical, or a good balance between the two. Cannisters are also excellent investments because of their ease of maintenance, and relatively inexpensive operating costs. Properly-sized cannisters can go anywhere from a month to as much as 4 months without any maintenance. Compare this to most other types of filtration, which needs to be serviced at least every couple of weeks, and you can see some substantial savings in bot time, and media costs.<br />
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Also called Hang-On-the-Back, or HOB filters, the power filters are by far the cheapest filters to buy. They are an excellent choice for smaller (55 gallons and under) tanks, or as supplemental and/or back-up filtration on a larger tank. While it is theoretically possible to put enough HOB filters on tanks up to about 125 gallons to provide adequate filtration, I do not recommend it. This is because in this size range, you are talking about at least three filtes that will most likely need to be maintained weekly. This is an aweful lot of work and recurring expense for filters that are only marginally adequate.<br />
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<b>While it would be difficult to add enough to properly filter a tank with one or more full-grown<br />oscars, sponge filters do have some good uses in <span style="color: lime;">Oscar keeping</span>. They are a cheap way to add<br />a little extra mechanical and biological filtration to a tank, and make nice back-up filters. Also, if you keep one running in a large tank, you have a pre-cycled filter ready if you need to set-up a hospital tank. Sponge filters are also cheap, effective filters for fry grow-out tanks.</b><br />
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Two factors essentially rule out undergravel filters (uGFs) for oscar tanks. First is the general messiness of <b>Oscars</b>, which is discussed above. The waste tends to clog up the gravel, and reduce the flow through your UGF. Second, <b>Oscars </b>love to dig, especially around spawning time. They dig so much that they will often dig all the way to the bottom of the gravel, and expose the UGF's plates. This will cause a short-circuit in the water flow, and virtually eliminate any filtration occuring in the UGF. When combining these two factors, it is generally best to avoid UGfs in an <b>Oscar </b>tank. While they might provide some benefit as supplemental filtration, the work involved in keeping the gravel clean and the UGF plates covered is simply not worth it.<br />
<br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-43336794951998704702012-03-15T10:19:00.001-07:002012-04-07T10:00:08.993-07:00Octopus Dangerous Under Water<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b>There are about 650 species in the class Cephalopoda, which includes the nautilus, squid, <u style="color: lime;">octopus</u>, and cuttlefish. A cephalopod (ceff-uh-luh-pod) has a complex nervous system, eggs that hatch directly into small versions of adults (instead of into larvae), and tentacles or arms around its mouth. The word “cephalopod” is made up of Greek roots that mean “head foot,” which describes the way a cephalopod’s arms and tentacles are attached directly to its head.</b><br />
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All 100 or so species of <b style="color: lime;"><u>octopus </u></b>have eight arms, each with two rows of suckers; no shell, either inside or out; and three hearts: one for circulating blood throughout the body and two to pass blood over the gills to oxygenate it. An <b>octopus</b>’s bagshaped body, or mantle, contains organs such as kidneys, a liver, gills, a stomach, an intestine, a brain, and reproductive organs. On top of its head, an octopus has two eyes that are structurally similar to human eyes; it has relatively good eyesight. An octopus’s intelligence is reportedly about that of a house cat. The octopus’s mouth is on its underside, where the eight arms meet. Its beak, made of keratin (ker-uhtin) (the same material as our fingernails and hair), is the only hard part in the animal’s body, which explains why octopuses are such escape artists. Any small space an octopus can fit its beak through, it can fit its entire body through.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b style="color: lime;">COMMON NAME</b>: <b style="color: yellow;">octopus</b><br />
<b style="color: lime;">KINGDOM</b>: <b style="color: yellow;">Animalia</b><br />
<b style="color: lime;">PHYLUM</b>: <b style="color: yellow;">Mollusca</b><br />
<b style="color: lime;">CLASS</b>: <b style="color: yellow;">Cephalopoda</b><br />
<b style="color: lime;">SUBCLASS</b>: <b style="color: yellow;">Coleoidea</b><br />
<b style="color: lime;">ORDER(S)</b>: <b style="color: yellow;">Octopoda</b><br />
<b style="color: lime;">GENUS SPECIES</b>: <b style="color: yellow;">About 200 species</b></td></tr>
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Giant Pacific <b style="color: lime;">octopuses </b>spend their days in small caves or cracks, where they are safe from predators. At dawn and at dusk, an octopus swims out to hunt for shellfish, bringing its prey back to its den to eat in peace. And the octopus can be an ambush predator if an animal should pass by its den, that’s even better than having to go out hunting. It’s not above a bit of scavenging, either, if it comes across an animal that’s already dead.<br />
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To eat live prey, an <b style="color: lime;">octopus </b>first bites it with its beak and injects venom to paralyze the animal. An enzyme that the <u><i style="color: orange;"><b>octopus </b></i></u>then injects begins to break down the animal’s protein, softening its muscles and internal organs over the course of two or three hours. Then the <u><b style="color: lime;">octopus </b></u>slurps the nearly liquid food out with its rasping tongue, called a radula (rad-yoo-lah). When it’s finished, the octopus pushes the remains out the opening of its den, creating an “octopus garden” of empty shells. Giant Pacific<b style="color: lime;"><i> octopuses</i></b> are preyed upon by seals and sea lions, sea otters, some fish, and larger octopuses. An octopus might try to use jet propulsion to escape, suddenly expelling water from its body through its siphon. Or it might squirt “ink” from its siphon, creating a false <i style="color: yellow;"><b>octopus </b></i>shape that confuses the predator while the real <u style="color: yellow;"><i><b>octopus </b></i></u>jets away.<b><br /> </b><br />
<b>Like many other cephalopods, an octopus can change colors in the blink of an eye. An octopus has color patterns for camouflage, attack, escape, sex, food, and curiosity. When a giant Pacific octopus is resting, it is almost white; when it is aroused, it turns bright red. When it is somewhere in between, it can show a striking mottled pattern.</b><br />
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<b style="color: lime;">Octopuses </b>come in two sexes. On the third arm on the right side of the male, the final four inches are modified into an organ called a hectocotylus (hectuh-kaw-t’l-us), a structure without suckers that is used to insert sperm ropes into the female’s mantle cavity. The female attaches her fertilized eggs tens of thousands of them to the roof of her den and stays with them for five or six months until they hatch. Without ever eating, she guards the eggs from predators and blows water over them to keep them clean and make sure they get oxygen. Once the eggs hatch, the female dies. After mating, the male also stops eating and eventually dies.<br />
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<b><span style="color: lime; font-size: large;">Octopus Description </span></b><br />
<b><u style="color: #38761d;">Octopuses </u>have a short, round body. They have eight tentacles (arms) jointed by a web of skin. The arms are lined with rows of suckers from the base to the tip. The mantle (body) surface is either smooth, or covered with wart-like projections or cirri.</b><br />
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<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Range</span>: North Pacific Ocean, in nearshore waters up to 2,500 feet deep<br /> </b><br />
<b style="color: #38761d;">Size</b>: The giant Pacific octopus is the largest octopus species. Typical weights for a full-grown giant Pacific octopus range from 70 to 110 pounds. Most are less than 16 feet across from arm tip to arm tip.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Diet</span>: Shellfish such as crabs, clams, abalone, and shrimp; fish.</b><br />
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<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Life span</span>: From three to five years<br /> </b><br />
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Suckers</span>: A total of 2,240 suckers on a female; males have about 100 fewer suckers<br /> </b><br />
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Plural</span>: Octopuses. If the roots of the word “octopus” were Latin, the plural would be<br />“octopi,” but since the roots are Greek, we say “octopuses.”<br /> </b><br />
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<b><i>Scientific classification: Kingdom Animalia; phylum Mollusca (includes clams, snails, and octopuses); class Cephalopoda (octopuses, squids, cuttlefish, and nautiluses); order Octopoda (the octopuses); family Octopodidae; genus Enteroctopus; species dofleini</i>.</b></div>
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<b style="color: lime;">Octopuses </b>are extremely popular as food all around the world. They are harvested recreationally, on a small scale, and through large commercial fisheries. Octopuses account for approximately 10% of the world cephalopod catch. Fisheries must be regulated in order to conserve octopus populations. Beachcombers, tidepoolers, and divers must remember not to disturb or collect any specimens that they may encounter. The removal of animals from an ecosystem may disturb ecological processes and decreased the diversity in areas that are frequently visited. Because of their specific nutritional and physiological needs, certain animals, such as octopuses have a much better chance for survival in their natural environment than in an unregulated home aquarium.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-13465020813494621972012-03-15T09:48:00.000-07:002012-03-15T09:48:06.161-07:00Chirodropid Jellyfish and Jellyfish Venom<b>Chirodropid jellyfish have multiple tentacles hanging from each corner of their box-shaped bodies. They usually have stinging cells only on their tentacles. These jellyfish are smaller than Chironex and have up to nine tentacles from each corner of the bell. Only one species of Chiropsalmus was thought to occur in Australia (mistakenly called Chiropsalmus quadrigatus). Now thought to be several different species that are yet to be named. The sting is painful but does not cause Irukandji syndrome.</b><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Chironex fleckeri Jellyfish</b></span></div>
Large, almost transparent jellyfish up to 380mm across, Up to 15 tentacles from each corner of its box-shaped body, Found in tropical waters from Exmouth,WA to near Gladstone, Queensland, Found near the coast and some coastal islands such as Magnetic Island near Townsville and some inshore Whitsunday Islands, Severe and potentially life-threatening sting that causes burning skin pain. Severe stings may cause the victim’s breathing to cease or the heart to stop.<br />
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Unlike many jellyfish, the multiple-tentacled box jellyfish Chironex fleckeri is a fast and agile swimmer and is rarely ever found washed up on beaches. It can swim at up to three knots and manoeuvre around pylons and piers. Although Carukia barnesi is also a box jellyfish, it is not as proficient at swimming as Chironex fleckeri. All cubozoans have eyes so that they can hunt prey and avoid objects in the water. Each jellyfish has 24 eyes clustered into four groups of six on each side of its box-shaped body. There are two types of eye in each cluster two complex eyes similar to human eyes (with retinas, lenses and corneas) and two simple pit eyes and two slit eyes. Although cubozoan jellyfish do not a have a brain (they have neurons concentrated in four nerve centres), recent studies indicate that they can form images.<br />
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<b style="color: yellow;">Jellyfish</b> also have organs called statocysts located below the eye clusters that help them maintain balance in the water. Inside each statocyst is a hard nodule called a statolith that is composed of calcium sulfate. In many species of box jellyfish, statoliths have daily growth rings and can be used for ageing them. It may also be possible to use statoliths to identify jellyfish species when their soft body parts are destroyed.<br />
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Carybdeid Jellyfish</span></b> </div>
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<b style="color: yellow;">Carybdeid jellyfish </b>usually only have a single tentacle hanging from each corner of their box-shaped bodies. They have stinging cells on both body and tentacles.<br />
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<b><span style="color: yellow;">Carybdea rastonii, jimble</span> </b>(About 15-40mm tall and Found in southern waters from Coffs Harbour, NSW, to Albany, Western Australia)<br />
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<b><span style="color: yellow;">Carybdea xaymacana</span> </b>(Similar to Carybdea rastonii but smaller, rarely more than 15-25mm tall and Common off Perth, from Busselton to Geraldton. Also found in Cairns region)<br />
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<b><span style="color: yellow;">Carybdea sivickisi </span></b>(Up to 8mm tall, with adhesive pads on top of body, and orange and brown striped tentacles and Common in algal beds of Magnetic Island near Townsville, the Whitsundays, Tasmania and South Australia)<br />
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<b><span style="color: yellow;">Tripedalia Binata</span> </b>(Bell usually less than 10mm, with two tentacles on each corner and Found near Darwin,Weipa and Cairns, typically among mangroves)<b></b><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Jellyfish Feeding & Venom</b></span></div>
Box jellyfish feed on fish, crustaceans and other marine invertebrates. They use potent venom to quickly kill their prey so that it does not escape. The venom is contained in stinging cells called nematocysts. Most box jellyfish have several different types of nematocysts; the type and proportion of nematocysts can be used to identify some species. The stinging cells have a miniature harpoon coiled inside them which is everted (turned ‘inside –out’) when the jellyfish contacts its prey. The bulb of the nematocyst injects toxin through the shaft and into the prey. The tentacle is contracted, and the pedalia (oar-like structures at the base of the tentacles near the bell) push the food into the manubrium or mouth which is located inside the bell. Once the nematocysts are fired, the jellyfish has to produce new nematocysts to replace them.<br />
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<b>Chironex fleckeri </b>has tentacles that can be extended to more than three metres long. There are billions of nematocysts along each tentacle. When Chironex fleckeri is young and eating mostly prawns, only five percent of the nematocysts contain venom which is potent to vertebrates. However, as the jellyfish grows and its diet switches to fish, the proportion of vertebrate-potent venom increases and can be found in 30-40 percent of the nematocysts.<br />
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<b>Chironex fleckeri </b>has tentacles that can be extended to more than three metres long. There are billions of nematocysts along each tentacle. When Chironex fleckeri is young and eating mostly prawns, only five percent of the nematocysts contain venom which is potent to vertebrates. However, as the jellyfish grows and its diet switches to fish, the proportion of vertebrate-potent venom increases and can be found in 30-40 percent of the nematocysts.<br />
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<b>The box jellyfish Chironex fleckeri are the most venomous marine creatures on the planet and, in<br />Australia, have killed almost 70 people in the last 120 years. In the Northern Territory, fatal box<br />jellyfish stings have been reported in every month of the year except August. Most stings occur in shallow water when the wind is light and the water calm (although stings have occurred in rough weather, in very dirty, deeper water). Victims usually blunder into tentacles trailing behind the jellyfish which are almost invisible in the water. Most stings occur on the lower legs and body.</b><br />
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Pain is instant and severe. The tentacles are like sticky threads and leave raised red marks. The venom of the box jellyfish is neurotoxic (attacks nerves), cardiotoxic (attacks the heart) and dermatonecrotic (destroys skin). Therefore, victims can rapidly stop breathing, sometimes within a few minutes of the sting. Death occurs rapidly unless prompt first aid and medical aid is available. If the victim survives, they are often scarred. Treating the sting sites as if they were burns greatly reduces the scarring, suggesting that it may be secondary infections that cause the scarring.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-48412422209442106952012-03-15T09:24:00.000-07:002012-03-15T09:24:46.178-07:00Jellyfish 30 Species<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b><span style="color: lime;">Jellyfish </span>with box-shaped bodies or bells are called cubozoan jellyfish. They belong to the Phylum Cnidaria which also includes seaanemones, corals, true jellyfish and bluebottles. There are two main groups of cubozoan jellyfish chirodropids and carybdeids. Chirodropid jellyfish include the large box jellyfish Chironex fleckeri and species of Chiropsalmus. Carybdeids include the jimble Carybdea rastonii and Irukandji jellyfish such as Carukia barnesi.</b><br />
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<b style="color: lime;">Chirodropid jellyfish</b><b> can be larger than</b><b style="color: lime;"> carybdeid jellyfish</b><b>. For example, </b><b style="color: lime;">Chironex fleckeri</b><b> can grow 300-380mm across the bell and one species of Chiropsalmus can grow to 90mm across the bell. The </b><b>carybdeid jellyfish Carukia barnesi usually only grows to about 10mm across the bell. Other carybdeids can grow to 80mm across the bell. Chirodropid jellyfish have multiple tentacles hanging from each of the four corners of their bells while carybdeids usually have a single tentacle hanging from each corner. For example, Chironex fleckeri can have up to 60 tentacles, 15 on each corner. Species of <span style="color: lime;">Chiropsalmus </span>can have up to nine tentacles on each corner of the bell.</b><br />
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In contrast, the carybdeid jellyfish Carukia barnesi has a single retractile tentacle, up to 750mm long, hanging from each corner of its body. The jimble Carybdea rastonii also has a single tentacle from each corner of its bell which can be up to 300mm long. However, some species of carybdeids may have several tentacles from each corner. For example, Tripedalia binata has two tentacles from each corner of its bell. Chirodropid jellyfish usually only have stinging cells on their tentacles. Most carybdeid jellyfish such as Carukia barnesi have stinging cells on both the body and tentacles.<br />
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<b>Distribution</b></div>
Box jellyfish can be found in most tropical seas around the world. In Australia, they are found in tropical waters predominantly in the wet season (November to May), but may be present throughout the year. Carukia barnesi, the first jellyfish shown to cause Irukandji syndrome, has been found from Port Douglas in north Queensland, to as far south as the Whitsundays. The jellyfish are found offshore as well as along coastal beaches when northerly or north-easterly winds and currents are thought to carry them onshore. The number of jellyfish in inshore waters can vary between years, probably due to changing weather conditions. In 1999-2000, two scientists sampling north of Cairns every day for four months over summer caught 270 Carukia barnesi (most of them were caught in three days). The following year, only two jellyfish were caught in the same time.<br />
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<b>Life</b></div>
There are almost 30 species of cubozoan or box jellyfish but the life cycles of only a few are known. The life cycle of the box jellyfish Chironex fleckeri was revealed in the early 1980s. Adult male and female jellyfish are thought to release sperm and eggs into the water. The fertilised eggs develop into ‘planula’ larvae which may swim for a few days before settling to the bottom of the creek. The planulae develop into polyps and crawl about for several days before attaching to rocks on the creek bed. The tiny polyps start feeding on plankton and then the polyps bud off extra polyps. Each polyp metamorphoses into a single miniature box jellyfish (called a medusa) about 1.5mm in size which grows and develops into larger jellyfish. These small jellyfish make their way to the creek mouth and along sandy beaches.<br />
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<i style="color: yellow;"><b>The life cycle of most<span style="color: lime;"> carybdeid jellyfish </span>including<span style="color: lime;"> Carukia barnesi </span>is unknown. The polyps of a carybdeid jellyfish from Puerto Rico have been found in creeks on dead bivalve shells.</b></i><br />
<br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-37273021801870933932012-03-15T08:56:00.001-07:002012-03-15T09:00:49.376-07:00Walrus (Odobenus Rosmarus) Walruses<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b><a href="http://planetanimalzone.blogspot.com/2012/03/walrus-odobenus-rosmarus-walruses.html"><span style="color: yellow;">Walrus</span></a>, a marine mammal, Odobenus rosmarus, found in Arctic seas. Largest of the fin-footed mammals, or pinnipeds, the walrus is also distinguished by its long tusks and by cheek pads bearing quill-like bristles. Adult males are 10 ft (3 m) long or more, and weigh up to 3,000 lb (1,400 kg); females weigh about two thirds as much as males. The tusks, which are elongated upper canine teeth, may reach a length of 3 ft (90 cm) in large males and weigh over 10 lb (4.5 kg). The hide is very thick and wrinkled, and is light brown and nearly hairless. Beneath the hide is a layer of fat several inches thick.</b><br />
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Like<a href="http://planetanimalzone.blogspot.com/2012/03/pinniped-mammalia-and-predators.html"><b style="color: yellow;"> sea lions</b></a>, walruses can turn their hind flippers forward for walking on land; their foreflippers are weaker than those of sea lions and they are not as strong swimmers. They live in shallow water and spend much of the time on ice floes and beaches, where they congregate in herds of about 100 animals of both sexes. They can dive to a depth of 240 ft (70 m) to find food, relying primarily on touch; their diet consists chiefly of shellfish, especially mollusks. The cheek teeth are rounded and are used for crushing shells. <a href="http://planetanimalzone.blogspot.com/2012/03/pinniped-mammalia-and-predators.html"><b style="color: lime;">Walruses </b></a>use their tusks for prying shellfish from the ocean floor, as well as for pulling themselves up onto ice floes. The herds tend to follow the ice line, moving south in winter and north in summer. Walruses mate in the water and give birth on land or ice floes. Male walruses compete for territory, often fighting each other; the winners in these fights breed with large numbers of females. Older male walruses frequently bear large scars from these bloody but rarely fatal battles. Walruses have been known to kill polar bears.<br />
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<b>Pacific walruses</b> spend the summer north of the Bering Strait in the Chukchi Sea along the north shore of eastern Siberia, around Wrangel Island, in the Beaufort Sea along the north shore of Alaska, and in the waters between those locations. Smaller numbers of males summer in the Gulf of Anadyr on the south shore of the Chukchi Peninsula of Siberia and in Bristol Bay off the south shore of southern Alaska west of the Alaska Peninsula. In the spring and fall they congregate in the Bering Strait, adjacent to the west shores of Alaska, and in the Gulf of Anadyr. They winter to the south in the Bering Sea along the eastern shore of Siberia south to the northern part of the Kamchatka Peninsula, and along the southern shore of Alaska.<br />
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<b style="color: lime;">Walruses </b>have a breeding season in mid winter, a time spent in the southern Bering sea. The males show off in the water for the females who view them from pack ice. Males compete with each other aggressively for this display space. Mating probably takes place in the water. After fertilization the fertilized egg remains dormant for several months, and then a gestation period of 11 months follows. When a calf is born it is over 3 ft (1 m) long and able to swim. Birth takes place on the pack ice; the calf nurses for about 2 years, spending 3 to 5 years with its mother. Females mature at about 6 years,<br />
males at 9 or 10. A walrus lives about 50 years.<br />
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<b style="color: lime;">Walruses</b> spend about half their time in the water and half their time on beaches or ice floes where they gather in large herds. They may spend several days at a stretch either on land or in the sea. In the sea they sometimes catch fish but generally graze along the sea bottom for clams which they suck from their shells. Abrasion patterns of the tusks show that they are dragged through the sediment, but are not used to dig up prey. They can also spit jets of water to look for clams. Walruses have been observed to attack narwhal and seals if they cannot find any other food source. This has mainly been observed in large males and the ingestion of seal flesh causes their blubber to appear "greasy".<br />
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The Eskimo hunt them for food and clothing; the introduction of firearms greatly increased the size of the kill. Commercial hunting of walruses for blubber, hides, and ivory has been extensive since the 16th century and has greatly reduced the walrus population. Several nations now have protective laws; Canada and Russia prohibit walrus hunting except by peoples for whom it is a traditional part of the economy. There are two walrus races, the Atlantic and the Pacific. The Atlantic race, formerly found as far South as Nova Scotia and occasionally Massachusetts, is now considered endangered. The walrus's nearest living relatives are the fur seals, with which it evolved from bearlike ancestors, the Enaliarctidae, in the North Pacific Ocean about 20 million years ago. Walruses are classified in the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Mammalia, order Carnivora, suborder Pinnipedia, family Odobenidae.<br />
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Animal acts and exhibits run a deplorable gamut. Animals used in these spectacles are often subjected to abuse in order to provide "entertainment" to patrons. Even under the best of circumstances, captivity can be hell for animals meant to roam free. Kept in small, barren cages, forced to sleep on concrete slabs, and imprisoned behind iron bars, performing animals often suffer from malnutrition, loneliness, the denial of all normal pleasures and behaviors, loss of freedom and independence, even lack of veterinary care, and filthy quarters. Attracting customers is the first consideration and the animals' welfare is often the last. Even when the mere display of the animals themselves is the "draw," the animals rarely receive proper care--and almost never the socialization and stimulation they crave.<br />
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Animals used for entertainment are subjected to rigorous and abusive training methods to force them to perform stressful, confusing, uncomfortable, and even painful acts; training methods can include beatings, the use of electric prods, food deprivation, drugging, and surgically removing or impairing teeth and claws. Confined to tiny cages and gawked at by crowds, animals in exhibits and acts endure constant stress. They may suffer from temperature extremes and irregular feeding and watering. Without exercise, they become listless, their immune systems are weakened, and they become prone to sickness; many resort to self-mutilation in reaction to stress or boredom. Mental illness is rampant among confined animals. Torn from their families and deprived of all dignity, every part of their lives is controlled by their captors.<br />
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<i><b>Marine parks have shown no more interest in Walrus conserving marine mammals' natural habitats than they have in educating audiences. In fact, the industry has actively lobbied to keep small cetaceans outside the jurisdiction of the International Whaling Commission (even though this would help protect these animals in the wild) because they don't want to risk not being able to capture additional animals in the future.</b></i></div>
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While zoos and aquariums may appear to be educational and conservation-oriented, most are designed with the needs and desires of the visitors in mind, not the needs of the animals. Many animals in zoos and aquariums exhibit abnormal behavior as a result of being deprived of their natural environments and social structures. Some zoos and aquariums do rescue some animals and work to save endangered species, but most animals in zoos were either captured from the wild or bred in captivity for the purpose of public display, not species protection. The vast majority of captive-bred animals will never be returned to the wild. When the facility breeds too many animals they become "surplus" and often are sold to laboratories, traveling shows, shooting ranches, or to private individuals who may be unqualified to care for them.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-82063075955254517262012-03-15T08:37:00.000-07:002012-03-15T08:37:33.284-07:00Pinniped Mammalia and Predators<b>Pinnipeds are flesh eating mammals living in water and on land. They represent over one quarter of the marine mammals and are found in nutrient rich coastal waters throughout the world. The majority of species are found in cooler areas with the largest populations in Antarctica. Although some spend many months at sea searching for food, they all return to land to breed and moult.</b><br />
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<b>The order Pinnipedia, "pinni" meaning "winged" and "ped" meaning "foot" can be divided into three families. These are the Otariidae (O-tar-i-day), Odobenidae (O-do-ben-i-day) and Phocidae (Foe-sid-ay):</b></div>
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<b>(a) Odobenidae Walrus </b></div>
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<b>(b) Otariidae Eared seals, Sea lions Fur seals</b></div>
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<b>(c) Phocidae True seals</b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Pinniped General </b></span></div>
As with other marine mammals, pinnipeds have developed streamlined bodies. Streamlining reduces resistance in the water, thus increasing agility and speed. Protruding body parts such as ear lobes are reduced and reproductive organs are modified and held entirely within the body. Each species has four limbs or flippers. These assist in steering, braking and grooming. Whiskers are prominent in each class and their eyes are large, enabling them to see in darker waters. All pinnipeds, with the exception of the walrus, are covered with fur which helps maintain their body temperature.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Pinniped Skeleton</b></span></div>
The vertebral column of pinnipeds is very similar to that of other mammals. Otariids have enlarged chest and neck vertebrae to support the large muscles used for swimming or locomotion on land. In the true seals, it is the lumbar (lower back) vertebrae that are enlarged. The vertebrae of true seals are loosely joined and the spine very flexible.<br />
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<span style="color: lime; font-size: large;"><b>Pinniped Feeding</b></span><br /><b>Pinnipeds </b>are near the top of the ocean food chain with a diet of mainly fish and squid. Some fur seals eat sea birds and others, for example the Leopard seal, also include penguins and seals in their diet. The Crabeater seal and the walrus eat crabs and molluscs. Seals have similar teeth to dogs although they do not have the flat, grinding molars. The teeth are all sharp and designed for grasping whole fish, rather than for chewing. Walrus teeth have adapted to a shell fish diet where the upper canines grow to form ivory tusks<br />up to 80 cms long. These help to crack the shells and can be used as defence weapons.<br />
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<span style="color: lime; font-size: large;"><b>Pinniped Thermoregulation</b></span><br />Like all mammals, pinnipeds are endothermic ('Endo' = 'inside') or warm blooded, which means that they are able to maintain a constant body temperature of approximately 38.5 degrees. Body heat is produced from muscular activity and metabolic processes such as digestion. A layer of fat called blubber, is found under the skin. This acts to insulate the animal which prevents heat being lost. The fur seal gains additional insulation with two layers of fur. The inner layer of fur traps and warms air next to the skin while the outer layer keeps them waterproof. On land, seals may huddle close together which helps to conserve<br />body heat.<br />
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<i><b>To keep cool, pinnipeds fan themselves with their flippers or dip the front flippers into the ocean allowing the cold water to lower the blood temperature. A behaviour known as 'sailing', exposes their flippers to the breeze, cooling the blood vessels close to the surface. Cool blood then travels through the body.</b></i></div>
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<span style="color: lime; font-size: large;"><b>Diving and Locomotion</b></span><br />True seals hold their back flippers together and move them from side to side to propel themselves through the water. The forearms assist in changing directions. The Eared seals, however, use their large front flippers to move through the water and their rear flippers to assist in steering. Special muscles close their nostrils and ears to stop water from entering. These muscles also close automatically when they sleep. While young, they surface to breathe every ten minutes and as they grow this extends to about thirty minutes. Times do vary between species.<br />
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<b style="color: lime;">Pinnipeds</b> are able to control heart beat and respiration rate. They have the ability to draw blood from outside areas such as the limbs, while maintaining blood circulation to the heart, lungs and brain. Over fifty litres of blood supplies enough oxygen to the vital organs during a long dive. Research has shown that eared seals can reach 28 km per hour for short periods and phocids l9 km per hour. <b style="color: #38761d;">Walruses </b>rarely cruise above 6 km per hour although they can reach short bursts of 30 km per hour.<br />
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<span style="color: lime; font-size: large;"><b>Pinniped Breeding</b></span><br />Adult males are called bulls and the females are cows. The young seals are known as pups while the baby walrus is called a calf. Mating and pupping always occur on land. Environmental conditions determine the<br />length of time of the pupping (breeding) season. Where the conditions are more stable, the season is longer (up to eight months) compared to areas where pack ice is unstable, resulting in a season as short as three days. Moulting, which follows the mating season, occurs on land for all pinnipeds. Again, the<br />length of time to complete the moult varies between species.<br />
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<span style="color: lime; font-size: large;"><b>Pinniped Migration</b></span><br />Most pinniped species migrate back to their colonies to breed. This coincides with increased food sources, ice drifts and breeding cycles and can be as far as 5,000 kms for some species.<br />
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<b style="color: lime;"><span style="font-size: large;">Pinniped Predation</span></b><br />Killer whales, <b style="color: yellow;">Great White sharks</b> and <b style="color: yellow;">other large sharks</b>, <b style="color: yellow;">Leopard seals</b> and <b style="color: yellow;">Hooker sea lions</b> are the natural predators of pinnipeds in the water. <b style="color: yellow;">Polar bears</b> cause deaths amongst these animals on land. However, it is human's influence that has caused the most dramatic decrease in population sizes. Blubber and fur were particularly valuable in the 18th and 19th century when mass slaughter of seals and sea lions led to many facing extinction. Fishing nets also cause many deaths through strangulation and drowning. Most populations are increasing again, although the Monk seals, Gualalupe and San Fernandez fur seals are still in danger of extinction.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-207970374183901754.post-88427991179702356942012-03-15T07:51:00.000-07:002012-03-15T07:51:10.509-07:00New Zealand Fur Seal and Australian Fur Seal<b><span style="color: lime; font-size: large;">New Zealand Fur Seal </span></b><br />
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<b>Although New Zealand fur seals are native to Australia, they also occur at several other islands in the Southern Ocean and around the South Island of New Zealand, where they were first described. New Zealand fur seals breed adjacent to the South‐west Marine Region on rocky islands off South Australia and the southern coast of Western Australia. </b><br />
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There are approximately 51 known breeding sites for this species in Australia, mostly in South Australia and Western Australia. Large breeding populations, which account for more than 80 per cent of the national pup production for the species (Goldsworthy, Campbell & McKenzie 2006), are found in South Australian waters at North and South Neptune Islands, Kangaroo Island and Liguanea Island. Colonies in Western Australia are centred on the islands of the Recherche Archipelago;<br /><b style="color: yellow;">the westernmost population is found near Cape Leeuwin. Available information suggests that the range of the species is expanding in Western Australia, with greater numbers of animals hauling out and breeding on the south‐west coast (Goldsworthy, Campbell & McKenzie 2006).</b><br />
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<span style="color: lime; font-size: large;"><b>Australian Fur Seal</b></span><br /><u style="color: #38761d;"><b>Australian fur seals</b></u> have been common visitors to the eastern part of the region for many years. They are known to haul out among and near New Zealand fur seal colonies on Kangaroo Island and are sometimes seen around the Neptune Islands. Recently, small numbers of <b>Australian fur seals</b> have bred in the region for example, on North Casuarina Island (off Kangaroo Island), 29 pups were produced in February 2008 (Shaughnessy et al. 2010). Like<b> Australian sea lions</b>, Australian fur seals feed mainly in the waters of the shelf. They are known to dive to at least 164 m to feed. Australian fur seals are generally benthic foragers, which is unusual for a fur seal, and take a wide variety of prey, particularly fish, squid, cuttlefish and octopus (DAFF 2007).<br />
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Populations of <b>Australian sea lions</b>, Australian fur seals and New Zealand fur seals were substantially reduced by commercial sealing in the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries. Fur seal populations have recently shown evidence of recovery since the cessation of commercial sealing, while Australian sea lions appear to have remained stable or have declined. Unlike fur seals, Australian sea lions have failed to recover from the effects of sealing. Population trends for Australian sea lions are difficult to obtain due to the large number and inaccessibility of breeding sites, although the few observations of population trends indicate that most are stable, some are declining and only one is increasing (Goldsworthy et al. 2007; Hamer et al. 2009; Shaughnessy et al. 2011).<br />
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<i><b>The life history characteristics and population structure of <span style="color: lime;">Australian sea lions</span> are unusual among seals and sea lions (see above), and make the species vulnerable to the impacts of human activities. These characteristics and the species’ lack of recovery mean that even small levels of human‐induced mortality could have a significant impact on the species.</b></i><br />
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Sea level rise was assessed as of potential concern for Australian sea lions and New Zealand fur seals. Sea level rise may reduce the usable area of many colonies of Australian sea lions, rendering low‐lying colonies unviable. Many breeding colonies are on highly exposed rocky shores, and breeding and nursing often take place on small ledges. Rising sea levels, accompanied by more intense and frequent severe storms, are likely to affect pup survival rates. Whether sea lions can adapt to these changes is uncertain (DEWHA 2010a). With its similar life history characteristics, New Zealand fur seals are likely to be affected by climate change in a similar way to <b style="color: lime;">Australian sea lions</b>. However, this species may be more resilient because its population is increasing.<br />
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Global sea levels have risen about 20 cm between 1870 and 2008. They are currently rising at a rate near the upper end of current projections and will continue to rise during the 21st century in response to increasing levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts a rise of 18–79 cm by 2095 (since 1990). However, sea levels higher than this projection are possible because of inadequate understanding of the response of the ice sheets to global warming (Church et al. 2009).<br />
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Global sea levels have risen about 20 cm between 1870 and 2008. They are currently rising at a rate near the upper end of current projections and will continue to rise during the 21st century in response to increasing levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts a rise of 18–79 cm by 2095 (since 1990). However, sea levels higher than this projection are possible because of inadequate understanding of the response of the ice sheets to global warming (Church et al. 2009).<br />
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Marine debris is assessed as of concern for Australian sea lions and of potential concern for New Zealand fur seals. A number of studies have shown that entanglement in marine debris is likely to be a significant source of mortality for sea lion populations and may be contributing to their lack of recovery across parts of their range (Page et al. 2004; Shaughnessy et al. 2006). It is estimated that 0.2–1.3 per cent of the population becomes entangled in debris (Page et al.2004; Shaughnessy et al. 2003). The Threat Abatement Plan for the Impacts of Marine Debris on Vertebrate Marine Life (DEWHA 2009) lists Australian sea lions as being adversely affected by ingestion of, or entanglement in, harmful marine debris. Based on a study at Kangaroo Island, Page et al. (2004) estimated that approximately 64 sea lions and 295 New Zealand fur seals die each year in southern Australia from entanglement, mostly in lost or discarded fishing gear. Because of the threat to pinnipeds, the southern rock lobster industry is phasing out the use of bait supplied in packaging that requires strapping.<br />
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Noise pollution has been assessed as a pressure of potential concern for the Australian sea lion. Pinnipeds are likely to be susceptible to increased noise levels or increased noise pollution for example, from seismic survey, construction or operational activities. The impacts of noise disturbance on Australian pinnipeds have not been investigated. Studies from elsewhere and on similar species indicate that they may be impacted by seismic surveys and other sources of noise, such as shipping or construction (Gordon et al. 2003). Harbor seals display strong avoidance behaviour (swimming rapidly away from the source) and cessation of feeding in response to air‐gun explosions of the type generated through seismic surveys Similar avoidance responses were documented during trials with grey seals: they changed from making foraging dives and moved away from the source, and some seals hauled out, possibly to avoid the noise. Responses to more powerful commercial arrays may be more extreme and longer lasting, and occur at greater distances. Given the status of the Australian sea lion and in light of likely increases in noise generating activities within or in proximity of Australian sea lion habitats, this pressure is of potential concern.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0