Geese and Canada Geese Habitat and Populations

Geese, ducks, and swans have always been a treasured natural resource in Pennsylvania. These birds are enjoyed by millions of people each year, whether they are birdwatchers, hunters, or just those who appreciate their presence. The fall flights of geese and swans in their characteristic “V”-flock formation are familiar and welcome signs of the changing seasons. However, because of recent dramatic increases in waterfowl populations, these birds have become a nuisance in some places. A lack of predators, decreased opportunities for waterfowl hunting, food handouts, and landscapes consisting of large expanses of turfgrass have provided ideal conditions for these birds.

Although most people find a few ducks or geese acceptable, waterfowl populations can quickly get out of hand. For example, one pair of geese can, in five to seven years, easily become 50 to 100 birds that foul ponds and damage lawns, golf courses, and crops. This fact sheet provides information on controlling damage caused by Canada Canada geese, ducks, and swans.

Canada geese mate for life, with both parents caring for, and aggressively protecting, their young. Canada geese in Pennsylvania consist of both migratory and nonmigratory populations. Migratory populations are the Atlantic Population and the Southern James Bay Population. These two populations nest in Canada and migrate south for the winter. Adults of both populations do not breed until three years of age. Both of these migratory populations have declined in size because of poor survival and low reproduction since 1985.

By contrast, the nonmigratory, or resident, population in Pennsylvania has grown from approximately 2,400 from 1955-60 to more than 150,000 in 1993. Adults in this population can begin breeding at age two and have a higher survival rate than migrating birds. The resident population consists of nonmigratory birds that nest and reside in the Mid-Atlantic states, including Pennsylvania, throughout the year. Because harvest restrictions that protect the migratory populations also have protected the resident population, Pennsylvania has recently established special hunting seasons to target the resident population of geese. These seasons take place when migrant populations are not in the state.

Canada geese may be discouraged from using ponds by installing a 30- to 36-inch-high poultry-wire fence at the water’s edge. This technique, however, is not effective for ducks. Three-foot-high woven-wire fences around gardens and yards also will help keep geese out of these places because adult geese with young will not cross a fence and leave their young behind. Geese also are reluctant to pass under a wire fence, so installing a single-strand fence, or one made of Mylar flashing tape, at a height of about 15 inches may discourage geese from entering an area. A 2-to 3-strand goose-resistant fence can be placed around lawns, gardens, and crop areas. Place the first strand 1 foot above the ground, with each succeeding strand 1.5 feet
above the previous strand. Snow drift fences and electric livestock fences have also proven effective.

Good results also have been reported using 20-pound test, or heavier, monofilament line to make a 2- to 3-strand fence in situations where aesthetics preclude the use of wire fencing. String the first line 6 inches off the ground, with each additional line spaced 6 inches above the preceding line. Suspend thin strips of aluminum foil at 3- to 6-foot intervals along the lines to increase visibility of the barrier for wildlife and people. The best results are obtained when the fence is in place before geese start grazing.

To stop waterfowl from using reservoirs, lakes, ponds, and fish-rearing facilities, overhead grids can be constructed of thin cable visible to both humans and waterfowl. White or brightly colored cables may improve visibility. Because these materials are extremely light, several hundred feet can be supported between two standard, 5-foot, steel fence posts. Grids on 20-foot centers will stop geese, and grids on 10-foot centers will stop most ducks. Where necessary, grid lines should be installed high enough to allow people and equipment to move beneath them. Excessive rubbing will result in line breakage, so grid wires should be tied together
wherever two lines cross. 

Attach lines independently to each post and not in a constant run, to prevent having to rebuild the entire grid if a line breaks. Where total exclusion is needed, use 1- to 1.5-inch mesh polypropylene UV-protected netting. Support the netting with at least 0.19-inch, 7 x 19-strand galvanized coated cable on 20-foot centers. Support cables must be well anchored to carry the weight of the netting and to allow the cable to be stretched tight to eliminate sag. High winds are the greatest hazard to this type of netting installation, so netting should be attached to the support cables to prevent wind-caused abrasion.

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Spectacled Bears Endangered In Habitat

The spectacled bear's real name is the Andean bear. It is called the spectacled bear because it has circles of cream-colored fur around its eyes, which make it look like its wearing glasses. This cream-colored fur can also extend down its throat and chest. Each bear has its own unique pattern of "spectacle" markings. The rest of its fur is black or dark brown. They have specialized claws for climbing trees. In the wild, they live for about 25 years.

Characteristics

Spectacled Bears Body length averages 5-6 ft. (from head to tail); shoulder height averages 2-3 ft.; males weigh 220-340 lbs. and females are 140-180 lbs. The spectacled bear is a small bear with thick black or dark brown fur consisting of medium length hair. It has circular or semi-circular white to cream–colored facial markings around its eyes (similar to wearing spectacles or glasses). Lines and patches of this light colored fur may also extend onto the throat and chest. This strong, sturdy bear has a short, muscular neck. Its head is rounded and it has a smaller snout when compared to other bears. The short, strong legs have feet with 5 toes. The toes have curved, nonretractile (can not be drawn back in) claws that can be 2 inches in length. Its front legs are longer than its rear legs, which allows the bear to be an excellent climber. Its large molars and strong jaw muscles enable this bear to grind vegetation, which is a major part of its diet. Lifespan: In the Wild 20-25 years; In Captivity 25+ years (longest life span is 36 years).

Spectacled Bears

Habitat
The spectacled bear is the only species of bear that lives in Latin America. These bears can live in the Andean deserts and up through the misty cloud forests to the mountain-top paramo grasslands. They prefer living in densely forested areas, as they are very timid and want to avoid humans. Their range extends from Panama all the way south to Argentina.

In the Wild: The spectacled bear, native to the Andes Mountains in South America, is mainly found in or
near forested mountains in Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. Recently, this bear has been
found in the Darien Gap region bordering Columbia and Panama, as well as in Northern Argentina. It is generally found in a variety of habitats from grasslands to coastal scrub forests, but prefers the lush,
misty ecosystem known as a cloud forest or Andean forest (elevation 5,900 ft. – 12, 500 ft.). Exhibit Location: Wildlife Trails

Diet
The spectacled bear's favorite foods are fruits and bromeliads. They are known to spend days up in trees collecting fruit. Sometimes they will even build platforms out of broken branches in order to reach their desired treat! They also enjoy dining on berries, grasses, tree bark, honey, sugarcane and insects. If necessary, they will eat small animals like rodents, rabbits and birds. These bears do not hibernate, as their food sources are available all year round. The spectacled bear plays an important role in the health of its habitat - it disperses tree seeds that are too large for other animals to digest. Scientists believe that the bears are responsible for the spreading of three important types of trees in their habitat.

Threats
There are many legends about spectacled bears having mystical powers. However, these fabled mystical powers have not kept the animals from becoming endangered. People who want to prevent them from raiding their cornfields or attacking their livestock frequently kill these bears.

Reproduction

Spectacled bear a female spectacled bear reaches sexual maturity between 4-7 years of age. Breeding season is from April to June. During this time, a pair will stay together for a week or two, mating frequently. The gestation period, which may include days of delayed implantation (the egg is fertilized, divides a few times, and then floats freely in the uterus for several months, ensuring that the young are born when food is available), is between 160-255 days. The female gives birth to a litter of 1-3 (usually 2) cubs from November to February. At birth, a cub’s eyes are closed and it weighs about 11 ounces. After the first month, its eyes open. It is black in color and already shows the white or cream–colored facial markings that are characteristic of its species. A cub grows quickly, and weighs about 22 lbs. after only 180 days. While it is small, the cub will often be carried on the mother’s back. The cub stays with its mother and litter mates for at least one year, until it gains independence and survival skills.

Conservation Status

IUCN Status: Vulnerable (2002); CITES Appendix I. The main threat is the loss of habitat due to deforestation for agriculture (timber, corn, coca, the opium poppy) and for land development (roads, highways, oil and gas pipelines, dams, high tension lines). The illegal hunting of these bears for their meat, skin, bones, fat, claws and other body parts is also a major threat because these parts, such as the gall bladder (used in traditional oriental medicine), bring a high price on the international market. A bear that wanders onto a farmer’s land may be illegally hunted because it is viewed as a threat to livestock or crops. The spectacled bear is part of a Species Survival Plan (SSP). Many zoos, including Rosamond Gifford Zoo, are now actively involved in maintaining the existence of this species. To help with conservation efforts, buy no products made from any parts of this animal. Cub predators: mountain lions (pumas), jaguars, humans, and adult male spectacled bears Adult predators: humans

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Brown Bear Species South of Canada

Grizzly-brown bear-Ursus arctos

Although wildlife management concepts were formed nearly 100 years ago, bears and their management have
been poorly understood. Recent concern for the environment, species preservation, and ecosystem management are only now starting to affect the way we manage grizzly/brown bears . Indeed, the difficulty in understanding brown bear biology, behavior, and ecology may have precluded sufficient change to prevent the ultimate loss of the species south of Canada. Grizzly/brown bears must be managed at the ecosystem level. The size of their ranges and their need for safe corridors between habitat units bring them into increasing conflict with people, and there seems to be little guarantee that people will sufficiently limit their activities and landuse patterns to reduce brown bear damage rates and the consequent need for damage control. Drastic changes may be needed in land-use management, zoning, wilderness designation, timber harvest, mining, real estate development, and range management to preserve the species and still meet damage control needs.

Grizzly/brown bear, Ursus arctos

 The brown bears of the world include numerous subspecies in Asia, Europe, and North America. Even the polar bear, taxonomically, may be a white phase of the brown bear. Support for this concept is provided by new electrophoresic studies and the fact that offspring of brown/polar bear crosses are fertile. The interior grizzly (Ursus arctos horribilis) is generally smaller than the coastal (Ursus arctos gyas) or island (Ursus arctos middendorffi) subspecies of North American brown bear, and it has the classic “grizzled” hair tips.

Brown bears in general are very large and heavily built. Male brown bears are almost twice the weight of females. They walk with a plantigrade gait (but can walk upright on their hind legs), and have long claws for digging (black  bears and polar bears have sharper, shorter claws). The males can weigh up to 2,000 pounds (900 kg), but grizzly males are normally around 400 to 600 pounds (200 to 300 kg). Wherever brown bears live, their size is influenced by their subspecies status, food supply, and length of the feeding season. Bone growth continues through the sixth year, so subadult nutrition often dictates their size potential.

Brown bears are typically brown in color, but vary from pure white to black, with coastal brown bears andKodiak bears generally lighter, even blond or beige. The interior grizzly bears are typically a dark, chocolate brown or black, with pronounced silver tips on the guard hairs. This coloration often gives them a silvery sheen or halo. They lack the neck ruff of the coastal bears, and grizzlies may even have light bands before and behind the front legs. Some particularly grizzled interior brown bears have a spectacled facial pattern similar to that of the panda or spectacled bears of Asia and South America.

Brown Bear

White grizzlies (not albinos) are also found in portions of Alberta and Montana, and in south-central British
Columbia. Such white brown bears may be genetically identical to the polar bear, but so far electrophoresic
studies have not been completed to determine the degree of relatedness. The interior grizzly’s “hump,” an
adaptation to their digging lifestyle, is seen less in the coastal brown bears, polar bears, or black bears. The brown bears (including the grizzly) are also characterized by their high eye profile, dish-shaped face, and short, thick ears.

The brown bears of North America have lost considerable range, and are currently restricted to western Canada, Alaska, and the northwestern United States . Their populations are considered secure in Canada and
Alaska, but have declined significantly in the lower 48 states. Before settlement, 100,000 brown bears may have  ranged south of Canada onto the Great Plains along stream systems such as the Missouri River, and in isolated, small mountain ranges such as the Black Hills of South Dakota. They were scattered rather thinly in Mexico and in the southwestern United States, but may have numbered about 10,000 in California, occupying the broad, rich valleys as well as the mountains.

Coastal Brown Bear Sleeping

Grizzly/brown bear habitat is considerably varied. Brown bears may occupy areas of 100 to 150 square
miles (140 to 210 km2), including desert and prairie as well as forest and alpine extremes. The areas must provide enough food during the 5 to 7 months in which they feed to meet their protein, energy, and other nutritional requirements for reproduction, breeding, and denning. They often travel long distances to reach seasonally abundant food sources such as salmon streams, burned areas with large berry crops, and lush lowlands. Denning habitats may be a limiting factor in brown bear survival.

Grizzly bears seek and use denning areas only at high elevations (above 6,000 feet [1,800 m]), where there are deep soils for digging, steep slopes, vegetative cover for roof support, and isolation from other bears or people. Since grizzlies select and build their dens in late September, when their sensitivity to danger is still very high, even minor disturbances may deter the bears from using the best sites. Unfortunately, the habitat types bears choose in September are scarce, and human recreational use of the same high-elevation areas is increasing.

Food gathering is a top priority in the life of grizzly/brown bears. They feed extensively on both vegetation and animal matter. Their claws and front leg muscles are remarkably well adapted to digging for roots, tubers,
and corms. They may also dig to capture ground squirrels, marmots, and pocket gophers. Brown bears are
strongly attracted to succulent forbs, sedges, and grasses. In spring and early summer they may ingest up to 90 pounds (40 kg) of this high-protein forage per day. Brown Bears gain their fat reserves to endure the 5- to 7- month denning period by feeding on highenergy mast (berries, pine nuts) or salmon. The 2 1/2- to 3-month summer feeding period is particularly crucial for reaching maximum body frame and preparing for the breeding season and winter.

Being ultimate opportunists, brown bears feed on many other food items. For example, the Yellowstone grizzlies have clearly become more predatory since the closure of the garbage dumps in the Yellowstone area. They are exploiting the abundant elk and bison populations that have built up within the park. They hunt the elk calves in the spring, and some bears learn to hunt adult elk, moose, and even bison. The ungulate herds, domestic sheep, and cows also provide an abundant carrion supply each spring the animals that die over winter thaw out just when the bears need a rich food source.

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American Black Bear Habitat In Natural Trap Caves

Remains of 22 American black bears (Ursus americanus) were excavated from 2 natural trap caves in Missouri during the late 1950s. Age, sex, and size characteristics based on analysis of ursid teeth from the caves corroborates wildlife studies that suggest that subadult to young-adult male bears are relatively vulnerable to accidental deaths in their search for food compared to members of other age sex cohorts. This information is of interest to wildlife biologists given that North American Black bears and humans increasingly share habitat. Data on native Missouri black bears are also of general interest because little is known about this population, which was extirpated by the beginning of the twentieth century, and because a
reintroduced population is expanding in the southern portion of the state.

American Black Bear

Two natural trap caves excavated by paleozoologists in the 1950s in Missouri produced historicperiod (post AD 1541 [O’Brien and Wood 1998) assemblages of animal remains that are dominated by American black bear (Ursus americanus). The bones of 10 bears (based on frequency of femora) were recovered from Lawson Cave, a vertical shaft cave in central Missouri (Wells 1959). The deposit was completely excavated and screened through 0.4 cm (J-inch) mesh; all excavated osteological materials were kept for analysis. The cave is a bottle-shaped trap, 11.5 meters deep with a 1.78 x 0.79 meter entrance. A collapsed horizontal entrance abuts the vertical shaft, but it is 4.5 meters above the inverted walls of the trap; thus, it never served as an exit from the trap chamber. American Black bear remains from the cave have been radiocarbon dated to the historic period (Wolverton and Lyman 1998, Wolverton 2001).

The taxa represented in faunas from both caves tend to be those occurring today in deciduous forest habitat. Both caves were natural traps to which bears were attracted by carrion. American Black Bears and members of other species were trapped in and subsequently perished within the caves. In both assemblages, remains of mammals other than bears are common including other carnivores, rodents, and lagomorphs. .Remains of domestic pig at Lawson Cave and turkey vulture at Jerry Long Cave are relatively abundant, and both species are carrion scavengers.

This aricle examines the age, sex, and size distributions of the black bears recovered from Lawson and Jerry Long caves through morphometric and mortality analysis of teeth. The ursid remains from these caves are potentially of interest to wildlife biologists. American Black bears are uncommon in Missouri and other parts of the agricultural Midwest because they were extirpated after Euro-American occupation; however, they have been successfully reintroduced into the Ozark highlands in Missouri and Arkansas (Schwartz and Schwartz 2001, Smith and Clark 1994). American Black Bear remains from these caves represent individuals from before extirpation, a population about which little is known. In addition, the ursid remains from both caves are dominated by youngadult males, which relates to age- and sex-specific life history characteristics that are relevant in modern wildlife management of bears.

American Black Bear

Although a host of variables are recommended for aging American black bears (Marks and Erickson 1966), not all of these are amenable for use with paleozoological specimens, such as those from Lawson Cave and
Jerry Long Cave, which are commonly disarticulated from crania and mandibles or fragmentary. Further,
tooth wear aging is less destructive than use of cementum annuli to age canine teeth. However, because wear rates vary by individual, the age classes used here were considered ordinal scale and assessed non-parametrically following the assumption that older individuals tend to contain relatively worn
permanent teeth.

The modern Midwest sample, especially bears from Arkansas, primarily represented individuals reintroduced
to northern Arkansas from Minnesota (Smith and Clark 1994), which are expected to be large in body size. That this modern sample reflected size of relatively large bears is important for 2 reasons. First, that size of the natural trap individuals compares with that of males in the Midwest sample supports the interpretation that the former sample indeed represented males because the natural trap individuals are large. Second, pre-extirpation Missouri American black bears appear to have been relatively large in size, which is of interest because very little is known concerning the original Midwest population (Wolverton and Lyman 1998).

American black bear, Missouri, natural traps, paleozoology, subadult male mortality, Ursus americanus

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Asiatic Black Bear Habitat and Population

Asiatic Black Bear-Ursus Thibetanus

The Asiatic black bear is a medium sized bear with a body length of 50 to 74 inches and weighing between 220 and 440 pounds. Females are smaller than males. They are normally blackish in color, with lighter muzzles and a distinct V-shaped patch of cream colored fur on their chest. A brown phase also occurs. The ears of an Asiatic black bear appear much larger than those of other bear species.

Range

They are found in Southern Asian in a now greatly reduced and fragmented range. The western edge of the range was formerly Afghanistan across Pakistan, eastward over northern India and southern China, northern Indochina and northeastern China, former eastern Soviet Union, Korea and Japan.

Asiatic Black Bear-Ursus Thibetanus

Habitat

Asiatic black bears prefer heavily forested areas, particularly in the hills and mountains and moist tropical forests below alpine elevations. In the summer they may be found up at altitudes of 10,00 feet and will descend to lower altitudes in the winter. It is known that they den up for winter sleep in the colder areas of their range but it is not known if they do this where their range is consistently warm.

Diet

Asiatic black bears are omnivorous eating insects, small mammals and birds, carrion, bee nests, and fruit. They have been reported to kill domestic livestock but the actual number of occurrences is unknown. In fall they will frequent nut-producing trees where they will eat from self-constructed leaf and branch nests or platforms.

Social Organization

Little is known about this bear in the wild. They are mainly nocturnal, sleeping in caves or trees during the greater part of the day. They may have established territories of 4 to 8 square miles.

Asiatic Black Bear

Reproduction

Females become sexually mature at about 4 years of age. While little is known about these bears in the wild, it is believed they have delayed implantation In captivity, cubs are born in December or January. They weaned at about six months but may remain with the mother for up to three years. Females in the wild have been seen to travel with cubs of distinctly different ages.

Conservation Status

The Asiatic black bear is listed as Appendix I in CITES. Threats to Survival: The Asiatic black bear's range is now comprised of highly isolated and non-contiguous areas of land, all subject to human encroachment. Furthermore, the Asiatic black bear has the unfortunate distinction of being the bear species most favored by the Asian medicinal market for its organs potency. The Asiatic black bear has been devastated by poachers and is at very real risk of extinction throughout most of its range in the near future.

Ursus Thibetanus

Zoo Programs

The existing North American captive Asiatic black bear population is an unknown, with few animals, many of varying subspecies, and is considered unsuitable to manage for genetic success. It is the recommendation of the AZA Bear Advisory Group that these animals not be bred and the space left by these animals be used for AZA Species Survival Plan bears. CBSG has recommended that Japan concentrate their conservation efforts on this highly endangered bear species.

Asiatic black bears now in North American zoo collections should be used for contraceptive trials to benefit all bear species. Woodland Park Zoo and the USFWS forensics laboratory are working together on a genetic analysis of the North American population. All medical and necropsy reports should be sent to the AZA Bear Advisory Group veterinary advisor for future reference. Zoos holding Asiatic black bears should stress the educational message of the impact of illegal hunting and the trade of bear parts to the Asian medicinal market.

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Malayan Sun Bear Endangered Populations in Habitats

MALAYAN SUN BEARS-Sun Bear-Helarctos malayanus

The Malayan sun bear (Helarctos malayanus) is the only tropical bear species inhabiting lowland tropical forest of Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Kampuchea, Vietnam, Southern China, Peninsular Malaysia, and the islands of Sumatra and Borneo (Servheen 1990). They are the smallest of the eight living bear species, which, in combination with its long claws, is possibly an adaptation for its habit of climbing trees
for feeding and resting (Meijaard 1999a). Adults are about 120 to 150 cm long and weigh 27 to 65 kg. Males are 10 to 20 % larger than females (Sterling 1993). They have short, sleek, black coats with a more or less crescent-shape white or yellowish ventral patch. Often this ventral patch is dotted with black spots, and varies in size, shape, and color. The name of the sun bear in Thailand and Malaysian Chinese translates to “dog bear,” probably because of their small size, short hair, and smaller head that is more dog-like than those of the Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) (Servheen 1990).

Malayan Sun Bear

The sun bear has been listed under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna (CITES) as an Appendix I species since July 1, 1975. As such, international trade in the species or its parts is prohibited without proper permits, but illegal international trade has been documented (Kemf et al. 1999). Live sun bears and their body parts are commonly available for sale in most countries where they
live (Kemf et al. 1999).

The species was listed as protected in Peninsula Malaysia and Indonesia in 1972 and 1973, respectively (Khan 1988; Santiapillai and Santiapillai 1996). In the Malaysian state of Sabah, sun bears are listed as a totally protected animal under Wildlife Conservation Enactment 1997; hunting of this species is prohibited (Sabah Government 1997). The species receives little conservation attention in any country  within its range. This lack of attention stems from the fact that the sun bear is uncommon, rarely seen, and competes for conservation attention with major species of conservation interest in its range, such as Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), tigers (Panthera tigris), Asian elephants (Elephus maximus), orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), and several smaller primate species.

The habitats of the sun bear are the lowland tropical hardwood forests of Southeast Asia. These forests are highly diverse and are valued for timber production. Timber harvest affects portions of the habitats of the sun bear. Malaysia and Indonesia are the world’s leading exporters of tropical hardwoods, sawn-wood, and veneer (Laarman 1988), and much of this harvest originates in sun bears habitats. In Peninsula Malaysia, the proportion of the total land area under forest declined from 74 percent in 1958 to about 40 percent in 1990- a drop of 34 percent in 32 years (Aiken and Leigh 1992). Another source reported that 48 percent, about 64,000 km2 of forestlands in  Peninsula Malaysia were cleared or will be developed for agriculture (Abidin et al. 1991). In Sumatra, it is estimated that between 65 and 80 percent of the lowland forest have already been lost (Whitten et al. 1984). By 1988, the remaining lowland forest had further decreased to only 10 percent of the land area of Sumatra (Santaipillai and Santiapillai 1996).

According to the World Bank, the deforestation rate in Borneo reached 7,000 km2/year in 1988 (Davis and Ackermann 1988). Other data indicated that Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo, lost more than 100,000 km2 of forest between 1984 and 1990 (Meijaard 1999b). In Sabah, forest harvest almost tripled from 1,570 km2/year in 1980 to 4,263 km2/year in 1990 (Meijaard 1999b), and in Sarawak, forest harvest increased from 1,400 km2 to 4,500 km2/year (Rijksen and Meijaard 1999). Between 1960 and 1990, 30-60% of suitable sun bear habitat was estimated to have been reduced in Borneo (Collins et al. 1991; Meijaard 1999b; Rijksen and Meijaard 1999).

Malayan Sun Bear

Meijaard (2001) predicted that some 14,000 – 28,000 sun bear will lose their habitat in Kalimantan, and most likely die in the next 5-10 years, due to the disappearance of suitable sun bear habitat across its distribution range, together with hunting pressures. In a report by Caldecott (1988) on hunting activities in Sarawak, sun bear were most often thought to be in rapid decline. His survey revealed that 77% of 48 longhouses (traditional communal house in Sarawak and Kalimantan) reported a serious decline in the number of Malayan sun bears. Based on the information provided by Caldecott (1988) (approximately 1 bear/50 hunting family was killed each year), Cleary and Eaton (1992) (estimated of 105,000 hunting families), Colins et al. (1991) and Meijaard (1999a) (93,000 km2 of potential sun bear habitat), and Davies and Payne
(1982) (estimated bear density of 1 bear/4 km2 ), Meijaard (1999b) estimated that 10% of the sun bear population in Sarawak was shot in 1988. Additional threats to the sun bear populations in the wild include the uses of sun bear parts for traditional ceremonies, the  international and regional trade in sun bears and bear parts, and keeping sun bears as pets (Santiapillai and Santiapillai 1996; Meijaard 1999b).

Despite threats from habitat loss and hunting, Malayan sun bear remains one of the most neglected large mammal species in Southeast Asia, and the least known bear species in the world (Servheen 1999). Even basic biological attributes such as food habits, home range size, and reproductive biology are unknown. Until recently, little research had been conducted on Malayan sun bear ecology, and there have been no organized surveys of its distribution and population densities (Meijaard 1997). The lack of biological information on the sun bear is a serious limitation to conservation efforts (Servheen 1999). Basic research on sun bears is the highest priority research need for any of bear species worldwide (Servheen 1999). Because so little information exist on their biology and numbers, sun bears are classified as “Data Deficient” in the 2001 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN 2001).

The scarcity of biological and ecological information of Malayan sun bear can be largely attribute to the animals’ secretive behavior, low density, uncommonly seen, spear distribution, and hostile environment in which it lives. Because of its shy, secretive nature, and because it lives in dense tropical forest, it is impossible to study this species from direct observation. Thus, radio-telemetry, together with remote sensing automatic cameras, are useful tools to study its ecology. My study is one of the first successful and in-depth attempts using radio-telemetry to gather information on sun bear food habits, home range, movement patterns, activity patterns, population density, use of day beds, among other topics. This study also documented a famine period during a prolonged non-fruiting season where we observed signs of starvation among sun bears and
bearded pigs (Sus barbatus) in the forest. Field works were undertaken during the summer of 1998, and between January 1999 and December 2000.

Few important reasons that make this study plausible and successful, among others, were the permission to conduct this study approved by Economic Planning Unit of the Malaysian Federal Government, Danum Valley Management Committee, and approval and collaboration with Sabah Wildlife Department. The study would also not have been successful without the facilities, warm hospitability, and help provided by staffs from Danum Valley Field Center and Sabah Wildlife Department.

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Polar Bear Endangred Populations In Habitats

In some areas of their Arctic home, polar bears are in decline. Their drop in population can be traced to another decline: that of sea ice, reduced by global warming. Sea ice is the polar bears’ primary habitat and they rely on it for survival. Unless major actions to reduce global warming are taken, two-thirds of the world’s polar bears are likely to be gone by 2050.

The burning of fossil fuels, the release of sequestered hydrocarbons into the Earth’s atmosphere, and extensive agriculture and deforestation are causing climate change, which in turn is causing the biggest threat faced by polar bears: the rapid loss of Arctic sea ice. Since 1978, scientists have recorded a decline in late summer Arctic sea ice area of 7.7 percent per decade, as well as a decline in the perennial sea ice area of up to 9.8 percent per decade. In some places, a thinning of the Arctic sea ice of as great as 32 percent or more from the 1960s and 1970s to the 1990s has been shown.

Polar Bear

More important, ice is melting earlier in the year and reforming later as a result of climate change. Thus, the
time available for bears to hunt on the ice and store up fat reserves for the summer and autumn is decreasing.
As the periods polar bears must go without food become longer, their overall body condition declines. Habitat loss due to global warming in the Arctic is by far the most important factor potentially affecting the future survival of polar bears.

Oil and Gas
Petroleum industry activities in the Arctic are another human disturbance factor stressing bears in their habitat. There are already large oil and gas operations in the Arctic, and the industry is set to expand in the years ahead - especially offshore. Onshore Arctic oil installations are currently found in Russia, Canada and Alaska. Disturbances due to seismic exploration, construction, transportation and the operation of facilities, as well as contamination from oil spill cleanup operations, may negatively impact polar bears. Furthermore, exploration for oil and gas continues to pollute the atmosphere with carbon dioxide, which is the leading cause of global warming and the loss of the polar bear’s sea ice habitat.

Polar Bear

Toxic Pollution
 As top predators, polar bears are exposed to high levels of pollutants through the food chain. Seals, their preferred prey, are often contaminated with the persistent organic pollutants (POPs) that are prevalent in Arctic waters. When a polar bear eats a seal contaminated with POPs, the chemicals become concentrated in the bear’s fat and are stored in its vital organs. Polar Bears with high levels of some POPs have low levels of vitamin A, thyroid hormones, and some antibodies, which are important for biological functions such as growth, reproduction, behavior and the ability to fight off disease.

Hunting: The International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears allows the hunting of polar bears by indigenous people using traditional methods and exercising traditional rights. WWF respects the rights of indigenous peoples to harvest marine mammals in a responsible manner. Most hunting is done in a sustainable manner, but overhunting is an additional stress on some polar bear populations. Currently, the hunting of polar bears by nonnative sport hunters is legal in Canada and Greenland. Historically, hunting was the biggest challenge faced by polar bears. But according to the U.S. Geological Survey, hunting has become less of a stressor. It does remain an important factor as the sea ice retreats, because retreating ice will make onceremote habitats more accessible and more bears will occupy terrestrial habitats. As harsh conditions become milder in certain areas, people will have new access to remote lands and the potential for human-bear interactions will likely increase.

Polar Bear

  

Protecting Habitat

WWF works in all of the Arctic countries inhabited by polar bears and has participated in their conservation for 20 years. Our strategy focuses on supporting field research, educating the public, and reducing threats to polar bears, their habitat, and their prey. We also call on governments, corporations and individuals to reduce their carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions, the main cause of warming in the Arctic.

WWF has provided technical support to the Wrangel Island Nature Reserve in the Russian Arctic, a place known as “the polar bear nursery” for its high concentration of maternity dens. In 2004, WWF successfully nominated the reserve as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. WWF works with scientists and communities to identify and protect important habitats along the Russian Arctic coast. In the Beaufort Sea, WWF Canada’s marine program is working to create a national network of marine protected areas designed to protect species and marine habitat. As we have for more than two decades, WWF will continue to work to preserve the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska. WWF, along with our conservation partners, will also advocate for protecting key polar bear habitats from offshore oil and gas development in other parts of the Arctic.

Supporting Science
Around the Arctic, WWF is involved in a variety of projects that are revealing important information about polar bear behavior and distribution, and about the impacts of habitat loss on the species. WWF supports research on the polar bear population in Canada’s Western Hudson Bay, where studies have demonstrated the direct relationship between diminishing sea ice and population numbers. Since 2001, WWF has supported the Norwegian Polar Institute’s research on polar bears and climate change. On our Polar Bear Tracker website (www.panda.org/polarbears), we track radio-collared polar bears to gather information about polar bear behavior. WWF has also donated satellite collars to the U.S. Geological Survey Alaska Science Center for a similar study in the Beaufort Sea.

Engaging governments and communities: WWF addresses the protection of polar bears at the international, national and local levels. Internationally, we facilitate cross-border information exchanges in support of the U.S.-Russia Agreement on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population. In Russia, we are aiding in the creation of a National Polar Bear Strategy. In the United States, WWF supports the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s proposal to list polar bears as “threatened” on the U.S. Endangered Species List, as well as Canada’s similar proposal to list the species as “threatened” under Canada’s Species at Risk Act. We also recognize that, because indigenous people continue to depend heavily on marine resources for survival, the participation of native communities is critical to polar bear conservation and management strategies. WWF supports efforts to engage these communities in the necessary science and monitoring and in reducing human-bear conflict.

In the remote Arctic village of Vankarem, a small community of 140 on Russia’s Chukotka Peninsula, residents have been observing growing numbers of polar bears on land each fall. When a young girl was
killed by a polar bear in a neighboring town in early 2006, Vankarem leaders and WWF initiated a “polar bear patrol” to help protect both people and bears. In its first field season in fall 2006, the experimental Umky Patrol (Umky is the Chukchi word for polar bear) proved to be highly successful. About 180 bears nearly surrounded the village for several weeks, but neither humans nor bears were harmed, thanks to the vigilant patrol members. With scientists providing some guidance, local people also used the opportunity to collect
important information about the bears.

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