Peron’s sea snake Acalyptophis Peroni and Eydoux’ Sea Snake;

Peron’s sea snake Acalyptophis Peroni  Horned sea snake

Peron’s sea snake is Maximum total length about 125 cm. Scale rows around neck 19 to 24 (rarely up to 27); scale rows around body 23 to 31 (rarely 21 or 32); ventrals 142 to 222. Maxillary teeth behind the poison-fangs 5 to 8. Often seen on the surface of reefs at medium depths. Feeds on Eleotridae and Gobiidae. Found in the Gulf of Thailand, Viet Nam, China, the Australian region, and New Caledonia; future investigations will probably reveal its presence in Indonesia.

Peron’s sea snake-Acalyptophis Peroni

Eydoux’ Sea Snake Aipysurus Eydouxii

Eydoux’ sea snake

Eydoux’ sea snake is Maximum total length about 115 cm. Scale rows around neck 17 (rarely 16); scale rows around body 17; ventrals 124 to 155, slightly notched on posterior border. Maxillary teeth behind the
poison-fangs 8 to 12, very small. Head shields regular. Feeds exclusively on benthic fish eggs. Caught by trawls from the surface to about 23 m; does not inhabit clear reef waters. East coast of Malayan Peninsular, Gulf of Thailand, Viet Nam, Philippines, Indonesia, and the Australian region. The only species of the genus Aipysurus which is caught outside the Australian region.

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SEA SNAKES Beutiful Dangerous

Sea snakes occur in the tropical and subtropical waters of the Indian and Pacific oceans from the east coast of Africa to the Gulf of Panama. Most species are found in the Indo-Malayan Archipelago, China seas, Indonesia, and the Australian region. They inhabit shallow waters along coasts and around islands, river mouths, and ascend into rivers up to more than 100 miles from the sea. They have also been found in lakes in Thailand, Cambodia, the Philippines, and Rennell Island (Smith, 1926; Dunson, 1975; Alcala, 1986; Ineich, 1996; pers. observ.). There is considerable variation in the number of species and species composition reported from the Western Central Pacific and precise information on geographical distribution for many species is still lacking. Most species feed on fish, a few prefer fish eggs, and a single species takes crustaceans and molluscs (Voris, 1972; Voris and Voris, 1983; McCosker in Dunson, 1975; Rasmussen, 1989, 1993). The genus Laticauda is oviparous (egg-laying) while all other sea snakes are viviparous (livebearing).

The most typical feature of a sea snake is the vertically flattened paddle-like tail, which is absent in all other aquatic or terrestrial snakes. However, the taxonomic status of “sea snakes” is still under review and there is no general agreement at the moment. Traditionally, sea snakes have been regarded as belonging to a single family, Hydrophiidae, with Laticauda as the most primitive genus. However, some experts consider that the Laticaudinae and Hydrophiinae evolved from different terrestrial representatives of the family Elapidae. Even more confusingly, some results indicate that the Hydrophiinae can be separated into 2 quite different groups, indicating that sea snakes may have evolved 3 times from terrestrial elapids (Rasmussen, 1997).

On a higher taxonomic level, all sea snakes are most closely related to terrestrial elapids, which include some of the most poisonous snakes of the world (e.g. brown snakes, taipan, death adder, cobra, Krait, mambas). Sea snakes (or aquatic elapids) and terrestrial elapids are both named “proteroglyphous snakes” because of the position of the poison-fangs in front of the upper jaw (maxillary bone).

Sea snake bite is the cause of fatalities in the Western Central Pacific. Typical victims are fishermen handling
gape nets, sorting fish on a trawler, or dragging a net while wading in muddy coastal waters or river mouths.
Some sea snakes are gentle, inoffensive creatures which bite only when provoked, but other species are much more aggressive (e.g. Aipysurus laevis, Astrotia stokesii, Enhydrina schistosa, Hydrophis ornatus) (Guinea, 1994; Heatwole and Cogger, 1994; Toriba, 1994; Warrell, 1994; pers. observ.). Even though sea snakes rarely inject much of their venom, so that frequently no or only trivial severity of poisoning is recognizable, all sea snakes should be handled with great caution.

If a snake bite has occurred, the following first-aid procedures are recommended: if the bite is on an arm or leg, a broad crepe bandage (or material of similar type) should be wrapped immediately around the area of the bite. The bandage must be very tight and extended over the entire arm or leg. Then a splint should be used to immobilize the arm or leg and hospital treatment must be sought as quick as possible. If the bite is on the body, firmly press the area of the bite and look for hospital treatment immediately.

Sea snakes are exploited for their skin, organs, and meat. Although some species are taken in great numbers
(e.g. Laticauda spp., Lapemis spp., and some Hydrophis spp.), they are not protected by CITES (Washington convention). Since 1934, meat and skin of sea snakes have been used commercially in the Philippines (Dunson, 1975) and local protection of sea snakes became necessary to avoid overexploitation. Sea snakes are also exploited in Australia, Japan, Taiwan Province of China, Thailand, and Viet Nam (Dunson, 1975; Warrell, 1994; Tim Ward, pers. comm., 1993; pers. observ.). The local government in Queensland, Australia has introduced a special licence to collect sea snakes. However, most sea-snake fisheries in the Indian and Pacific oceans have not been reported in the literature and are not controlled by local governments. With the exception of the Philippines, the impact of exploitation on populations of sea snakes is almost unknown and some populations may already be in danger of extinction.

Monitoring and control of the commercial catch is the only way to maintain a sustainable yield, giving local governments a chance to intervene before a catastrophic collapse of local populations occurs. However, management of sea-snake fisheries and protection of the endangered species is not possible without a basic knowledge of the group and the ability to identify to the species level. It is the purpose of the present contribution to provide a tool for correct identification of sea snakes in the Western Central Pacific. Nonetheless, the following identification keys must be regarded as tentative, due to the lack of distribution data from many regions and because there is no general agreement on the validity of certain species.

Identification of sea snakes to the species level is very difficult. The genus Hydrophis especially shows wide
interspecific variation which makes it difficult to exclusively use external characters for identification. For the
separation of genera, only characters that are visible without using a microscope are included in the keys. The shields on the head and the number of scale rows around the body are particularly important, as well as the shape of head, the size and number of ventral scales, and the position of the maxillary bone.

When counting scale rows around the neck and body it is important to remember that the count around the neck is a minimum count, while the count around the body is a maximum count. To be sure of the minimum
count around the neck it is necessary to count the scale rows 3 or 4 times, starting 1 ½ head lengths behind the head and then 2, 2 ½, and 3 head lengths behind the head. When counting scale rows around the body
the maximum count is normally found just behind the midbody. However, to be sure of the precise maximum
count it is helpful to count 3 or 4 times between midbody and anus. All scale rows are counted in a straight
line around the body, starting at a ventral and counting each scale along this line. The ventral is not included
in the scale-row count.

In the key to species of Hydrophis it was necessary to include the count of maxillary teeth behind the poison-fangs. Use a needle to push the gum around the teeth to above the maxillary bone and keep the gum in this position by fixing the needle at the roof of mouth (sometimes it is necessary to use 2 needles). A microsope is required to count the maxillary teeth.

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Varanus Salvator Ziegleri From Moluccas Indonesian Species

The Southeast Asian water monitor lizard Varanus salvator ziegleri (Laurenti, 1768) is among the largest extant squamate reptiles of the world. It is also the most widespread member of the genus Varanus (Böhme, 2003), ranging from Sri Lanka in the west through continental Southeast Asia, the Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands to Sulawesi and the Moluccas (Koch et al., 2007a). However, taxonomy and intraspecific diversity of this giant Asian monitor lizard species complex have long been neglected. Anew era started in 2007, when the three traditionally recognized subspecies from the Philippine Archipelago were elevated to full species status due to significant morphological differences (Koch et al., 2007a). In another recent study, the Philippine species were reinvestigated morphologically and it could be shown that this vast archipelago harbors no less than five different species of the closely related V. salvator complex (Kochet al., 2010).

Varanus salvator ziegleri

Another unresolved issue is the exact limit of the distribution range of V. salvator and its occurrence on the islands east of Sulawesi (see Koch et al., 2007a). De Rooij (1915), for instance, examined historical voucher
specimens from Halmahera but also listed Bacan (Batjan) within the species range. Mertens (1930, 1942,
1959, 1963) reported V. s. salvator from the islands of Obi, Halmahera, and Bacan at the eastern boundary, although no material from either of the latter two islands was available to him. Instead, he referred to earlier authors like Bleeker (1856, 1857, 1860a, 1860b), who had reported Varanus salvator ziegleri from the Moluccas. Brandenburg (1983) adopted these earlier records from Halmahera and Obi. More recent authors, however, largely ignored the possible occurrence of water monitor lizards in the Moluccas (see, e.g., Eidenmüller, 2009).

Recently, however, populations of Varanus salvator ziegleri were encountered on several Moluccan islands such as those of the Sula Archipelago and Obi (Weijola and Sweet, 2010). Subsequent investigations of the varanid collection at the Senckenberg Museum, Frankfurt (SMF), revealed one juvenile specimen of Varanus salvator ziegleri from the island of Obi, which was donated by the Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense on Java, Indonesia, in 1957. This voucher specimen formed the base for Mertens’ (1959) novel island record for Obi. The specimen exactly matches in coloration and pattern with a live specimen from Obi as depicted by Weijola (2010). Due to unique characteristics in the color pattern of the Obi population, we here describe a new subspecies of the Southeast Asian water monitor lizard Varanus salvator ziegleri.

Field work on Sulawesi and adjacent islands was conducted between 2005 and 2007. In addition, voucher
specimens of major European and Indonesian natural history museums were studied. Museum collection acronyms used follow Leviton et al. (1985). Examination methods of standard morphometric and meristic characters used in this study are based on the works of Mertens (1942), which were later further developed and expanded by Brandenburg (1983) and Böhme et al. (1994). For each voucher specimen examined
21 external morphometric and meristic characters were recorded. In order to minimize the errors based on
observer bias, all measurements and scale counts weremade by the senior author. In addition, four proportion
indices were calculated.

Head measurements were taken with a slide-caliper to the nearest 1 mm. Body and tail lengths of subadult and adult specimens were taken with a measuring tape. Scale counts were recorded using pins and with check marks. A binocular microscope or a magnifying-glass was used for juvenile specimens with very small scales. For the measurement of the scalation character Q, the first continuously tail-spanning row of scales near the tail base was counted by excluding the first rows immediately after the cloaca, which form a non-continuous bow.

The transverse scale rows on the ventral side to the insertion of the hind limbs (character T) were counted up to the last continuous row when the scales eventually decrease and are of irregular shape. In contrast to Brandenburg (1983) and Böhme et al. (1994), “N” instead of “n” abbreviates the number of gular scales from the tip of the snout to the gular fold, to avoid confusion with the standardized variable “n” for the number of voucher specimens examined.

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Varanus Macraei Breeding and Distribution

Varanus macraei was only recently described by Böhme and Jacobs (2001) and is known only from Batanta Island, northwest of the Vogelkop Peninsula of Irian Jaya, Indonesian New Guinea. The species belongs to the emerald tree monitor (V. prasinus) group, which is currently comprised of nine species: V. prasinus, V. beccarii, V. kordensis, V. bogerti, V. keithhornei, V. telenesetes, V. macraei, V. boehmei and V. reisingeri (Ziegler et al., 2007). Varanus macraei is a large, slender tree monitor with smooth, unkeeled nuchal scales and a unique dorsal color pattern consisting of numerous oblique, irregular rows of blue ocelli on a black ground color.

Varanus Macraei

Maximum size is 110 cm in total length, with a maximum snout vent length (SVL) of 36 cm in males and 31.3 cm in females (Böhme & Jacobs, 2004). Varanus macraei is a diurnal, highly specialized tree monitor, as are the other members of the V. prasinus group. Because the size of Batanta Island is only 455 km², with a maximum length of 61 km and a maximum width of 13 km, V. macraei has one of the smallest distributions among Varanus, and virtually nothing is known about its habitat and natural history (Böhme & Jacobs, 2001; 2004).

Varanus Macraei

The first breeding of V. macraei in captivity was published by Jacobs (2002). Further breeding successes in private  facilities were subsequently published by Dedlmar (2007) and Moldovan (2008). Moreover, Mendyk (2007) reported on dizygotic twinning in V. macraei and Dedlmar (2008) on a two-headed hatchling. However, to our knowledge, there have been no documented zoo breedings of this rare and certainly endangered species. Thus, the first successful zoo breedings of V. macraei, at the Plzen and Cologne Zoos are herein reported.

Breeding

On 21 January 2004, the Plzen Zoo received a subadult pair of V. macraei, which was sent from Jakarta and subsequently confiscated at Prague airport. In April 2009, the female specimen measured 300 mm SVL and
620 mm tail length (TL) (920 mm in total length), the male measured 330 mm SVL and 660 mm TL (990
mm in total length). Three years later, in January 2007, Cologne Zoo received a confiscated pair of adult V.
macraei from the Wildtier- und Artenschutzstation e.V. Sachsenhagen in Germany. On 28 April 2009, the female specimen  measured 275 mm SVL and 575 mm TL (850 mm in total length), the male measured 290 mm SVL and 640 mm TL (930 mm in total length).

Both wild-caught pairs made up the unrelated breeding stocks of the Plzen and Cologne Zoos. Both  breeding pairs from Plzen and Cologne are undoubtedly members of the V. prasinus group and assignable to the species macraei due to their prehensile tails which are roundish in cross section, in combination with unkeeled, smooth neck scales, dorsal patterns consisting of transversal rows of blue ocelli, and tails bearing alternating blue and black bands (Ziegler et al., 2007).

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Varanus Prasinus Species Waigeo Papua Indonesian

On the basis of seven specimen I describe a new monitor taxon from the Indonesian isle of Waigeo (West Irian). This taxon tends to the melanistic forms of the Varanus prasinus or V. Prasinus group and shows golden yellow spots on black ground. The prehensile circular tail as well as the outer genital structures prove it to be a member of the subgenus Euprepiosaurus and the V. prasinus group. It can be differentiated from the other melanistic taxa by the lowest number of scales around midbody and the lowest number of ventrals and dorsals. The phylogenetic relationship to the other taxa of the group has to be reserved for a taxonomic review on molecular basis. With regard to morphological results the new species is closely related to V. kordensis and V. beccarii.

Varanus Prasinus

Most recently, a blue-coloured tree monitor from Batanta Island, West Irian (Indonesia) has been discovered and described as a new species: Varanus macraei BÖHME & JACOBS, 2001. In this paper, the authors referred already to another insular form from the neighbouring island of Waigeo which, according to photographs available in the internet, was easily distinguishable by its strikingly different colour pattern und was termed there as “golden speckled tree monitor” (see BÖHME & JACOBS 2001: 10). In the meantime, some live specimens could be obtained, and it turned out that my first view which was based on photographs only and which had led me first to regard the Waigeo population just as a colour variant of Varanus macraei, was not at all tenable. Rather, its colour pattern proved to differ not only in the colouration of the light body markings, but also in their arrangement, apart from a general chevron-like pattern which is more or less expressed present in all taxa of the Varanus prasinus group.

Varanus Prasinus

Varanus Prasinus

This includes currently seven taxa (prasinus, beccarii, bogerti, keithhornei, kordensis, macraei and telenesetes) whereas MERTENS (1942) recognised only four: the nominal subspecies prasinus, kordensis, beccarii, and bogerti. Despite the taxonomic review of the group by SPRACKLAND (1991), the taxonomic status of some of these taxa and their interrelationships are still not sufficiently analysed. In particular, molecular analyses are still lacking. In any case, closer examination and comparisons with the described forms led me to believe that a new, undescribed taxon, the eighth in the group, is involved, which I am going to describe below.

Varanus Prasinus

In November 2002 and January 2003 I was able to obtain six specimens of the Waigeo “golden speckled tree monitor” from private sources and from the pet trade. One of them died soon, serving now as the holotype and being deposited in the Zoologisches Forschungsinstitut und Museum Koenig, Bonn, Germany. The five remaining specimens – described below as paratypes – are still in my possession. They will be deposited after their natural death in the same institution.

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Oriental garden lizard, Bloodsucer Lizard and CALOTES VERSICOLOR

Calotes versicolor, Agamidae, Bloodsucker, Oriental Garden Lizard

MANY non-native lizard species of tropical origin have become established in southern Florida, and Florida now has more nonindigenous amphibian and reptile species than any other state (Butterfield et al., 1997). In this paper, we report the first established population of Calotes versicolor (Daudin 1802), an Asian agamid lizard, in Florida. Butterfield and co-workers (1997) included Calotes versicolor in their list of established exotic herpetofaunal species in Florida based upon a personal communication from R. D. Bartlett. However, the purported C. versicolor population was misidentified and was actually C. mystaceus (Bartlett, 2003), which occurs in two small areas in the vicinity of pet dealerships in Glades and Okeechobee counties (Bartlett and Bartlett, 1999).

Of the 21 recognized species of Calotes (Vindum et al., 2003), C. versicolor is the most widespread, ranging from southeastern Iran and Afghanistan east to Indo-China and as far south as Sri Lanka, Sumatra, and northern Peninsular Malaysia (Boulenger, 1912; Smith, 1935; Zhao and Adler, 1993; Cox et al., 1998).
Calotes versicolor is distinguished from its congeners by having lateral body scales pointing backwards and upwards, no oblique fold or pit anterior to the shoulder, two separated spines above the tympanum, and 35–52 scales around the body (Smith, 1935). Calotes versicolor exhibits obvious geographic variation in coloration, scalation, and size across its wide range, but only two subspecies have been  described (Auffenberg and Rehman, 1993, 1995); our specimens were of the nominate subspecies.

Males may measure 140 mm snout-vent length (SVL) and have a slender tail 295 mm long (Radder et al., 2001). Adults have large heads, massive shoulders, expandable dewlaps, and laterally flattened bodies with a crest extending from the neck almost to the tail. The ground color is typically dull brown, gray, or olive with
irregular dark brown spots or bars, but breeding males have pale yellow bodies with a large black patch on each side of the throat. Breeding males also develop bright orange or crimson areas around the head and shoulders, but this brilliant coloration can change rapidly depending upon mood or environmental conditions (Bhatti and Bhatti, 1986; Cox et al., 1998). This red coloration accounts for these lizards commonly being called bloodsuckers. Other names for this arboreal species are the oriental or tropical garden lizard, Indian tree lizard, crested tree lizard, and changeable lizard.

In its native range, Calotes versicolor is commonly observed in parks, gardens, agricultural areas, waste land, and open forests (Cox et al., 1998). They typically live among leafy undergrowth and grass in open habitats, but males often display from fences and other conspicuous perches (Cox et al., 1998). Juveniles forage and bask mostly at ground level, whereas subadults and adults spend much of their time on tree trunks, often in a head-down posture surveying for prey (Diong et al., 1994).

Calotes versicolor is a very adaptable, prolific species that is commonly found in human-altered environments and can survive even in urban areas in Asia (Erdelen, 1988). In its native range, C. versicolor preys primarily on arthropods, but adults prey occasionally on their own young as well as small birds and nestlings, frogs, geckos, and small snakes (Rao, 1975; Dhindsa and Toor, 1983; Sharma, 1991a, 1991b, 1999; Diong, 1994). Calotes versicolor was introduced into Singapore in the 1980s, where it rapidly established populations (Chou, 1994) and partially displaced populations of a native agamid, the green crested lizard (Bronchocela cristatella) (Diong et al., 1994). We do not know what effect C. versicolor will have on populations of sympatric native lizard species in Florida, such as the green anole (Anolis carolinensis), ground
skink (Scincella lateralis), and southeastern five-lined skink (Eumeces inexpectatus).

Populations of the non-native brown anole (Anolis sagrei) and knight anole (A. equestris) are already common in the area, and non-native brown basilisks (Basiliscus vittatus) and green iguanas (Iguana iguana) are occasionally observed in adjacent areas (Flowers, 2003; Ward, 2003). Calotes versicolor is yet another exotic species that may compete with or prey upon Florida’s native species.

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Varanus Zugorum Habitats In Asia

This is the only Varanus Zugorum which was not observed during fieldwork. It appears to be almost completely unknown by locals, and only two reasonably reliable local eyewitness accounts were collected, in Akesahu (lower western side of Kao Bay) and Labi Labi (northeast Halmahera). Searches and interviews around the type locality Pasir Putih were unproductive. The holotype was collected in December 1980 by a villager, so further details from the initial discovery remain unknown (Adam Messer, pers. comm. 2008).

Varanus Zugorum

Monitor communities and niche segregation by sympatric Varanus Zugorum have been studied by several workers, including Pianka (1994), Shine (1986), Sweet (1999, 2007) and Philipp (1999). Communities range from simple one species systems up to as many as 11 species in certain areas of northern Australia (Sweet, 2007).

Varanus Zugorum

 These studies have shown that interspecific competition is typically minimized by differing use of habitat,
different body sizes, and foraging mode. Additionally, phylogenetic distance may aid in reducing niche overlap
in the most diverse communities of Australia and New Guinea.

A community comparable to the one on Halmahera, though slightly less diverse, was studied by Philipp
(1999) in West Papua. He investigated the habitat use of three closely related species of the indicus-group (V.
doreanus, V. indicus and V. jobiensis), and concluded that competition and interaction is largely avoided by
the use of different habitats and/or microhabitats.

This study found that on Halmahera and Obi, V. rainerguentheri is similar in habitat use to that of V. indicus on New Guinea (Philipp, 1999), while V. caerulivirens appears to fill a similar niche to that of V. jobiensis. Varanus yuwonoi overlaps widely in habitat use with V. caerulivirens but grows significantly larger, may use a different hunting strategy, and concentrate on larger prey items. Thus there seem to be clear niche separations in communities of V. indicus group animals in Moluccan multi-species communities as well. The ecological separation where members of Euprepiosaurus and V. salvator overlap is not equally obvious.

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Varanus Cf. Salvator Habitat In Indonesian

The distribution of Varanus Cf. Salvator  in the Moluccas has been uncertain for a long time, probably starting with what appears to be an erroneous record for Halmahera in de Rooij (1915), widely cited since (for example Bennett, 1995, Harvey and Barker, 1998). Obi, Seram and Bacan were mentioned by Mertens (1930, 1942, 1959), and Buru by Bleeker (1857). Since recent fieldwork, including this study, has not found support for many of these localities, it is suggested that all except Obi be omitted from the range of Varanus Cf. Salvator. Since the animals on Obi do not completely correspond with any of the described Varanus salvator group taxa, it is here employed with a cf. (meaning “compare with”).

Varanus Cf. Salvator

Varanus Cf. Salvator Distribution (in the north Moluccas): Obi Island, probably also on nearby Bisa, but not confirmed.

Varanus Cf. Salvator Ecology

Five observations were made of this species during two weeks on Obi. The sympatry between members of Soterosaurus and Euprepiosauris is interesting, since some authors have presumed that they might be ecologically exclusive (Mertens, 1942, Sprackland, 2004, Ziegler et al., 2007b). This proves to be incorrect since this study confirms sympatry of V. cf. salvator with V. rainerguentheri and V. caerulivirens on Obi, as well as two other species in the Sula islands (Weijola and Sweet, in press).

Varanus Cf. Salvator

Varanus Cf. Salvator

 All observations of V. cf. salvator on Obi occurred in coastal mangrove forest and periodically flooded littoral vegetation, where it is widely syntopic with V. rainerguentheri. They most likely also occur in inland forests and around freshwater streams side by side with V. caerulivirens. On Obi, they appear less numerous than V. rainerguentheri (5 vs. 22 observations), and similarly on Sanana, many fewer Varanus cf. salvator were observed compared to a sympatric member of the V. indicus complex during the course of fieldwork.

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Varanus Yuwonoi Origanaly Indonesian Reptiles

Varanus Yuwonoi (V. yuwonoi)

The black-backed mangrove monitor was only observed around the villages of Akesahu and Kao, both in the western part of Teluk Kao (Kao Bay) on Halmahera. The type series was collected near Jailolo (Harvey and Barker, 1998). Interviews with locals and animal dealers suggest that this species is widespread throughout the island. Eyewitness accounts of Varanus yuwonoi like animals from Morotai, Bacan, and even Obi exist, but still need confirmation.

Varanus yuwonoi is a difficult species to study. Despite frequent observations by local hunters, specimens are very rarely encountered out in the open. Considering the difference in size, which is presumably also reflected in trophic level, this species probably does not reach population densities as high as Varanus caerulivirens. A less active mode of hunting (sit and wait/ambush) may also result in the fewer encounters with V. yuwonoi.

Varanus Yuwonoi-V. Yuwonoi

Traps used by locals specifically for this species are always set up around megapode bird (scrubfowl) nests in
inland forests. The unusual pigmentation of the tail, body and neck breaks up the silhouette of the animal very well as they lie on the forest floor. Considering that the smaller and more predator-vulnerable species in the Moluccas have not evolved such an elaborate camouflage, it may have evolved rather as a means to escape detection from potential prey. The head is comparatively powerfully built and the teeth proportionately longer than any of its close relatives, even in comparison to most other more distantly related varanids.

Considering these facts, the author hypothesizes that Varanus yuwonoi is an ambush predator, favoring sites in the forest such as megapode nests, that are frequented by a variety of potential prey items. It is uncertain whether large individuals can kill adult scrubfowl, but the large nest mounds attract a number of smaller birds such as pigeons, and also lizards, snakes, and invertebrates, as well as the frequently hatching megapode chicks. According to local people, this species is also occasionally seen digging into these nests in search of eggs.

Varanus Yuwonoi

Additionally, observations of intraspecific aggression within the Varanus yuwonoi and Varanus doreanus clade (Ast, 2001) in captivity would support a hypothesis that V. yuwonoi could be an ambush predator. With few exceptions (Sweet, 1999, 2007), widely foraging monitor (and other scleroglossan lizards) species are not territorial; however, the two species (Varanus scalaris and Varanus glebopalma) known to be territorial are both ambush hunters. For a sit and wait predator favoring prey “hotspots”, a certain degree of territoriality could be expected to evolve. The largest individual measured 146 cm in total length; this specimen however did not appear to be fully grown, and according to locals they occasionally grow much larger.

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Varanus Rainerguentheri With Varanus Indicus

Varanus rainerguentheri was described as a cryptic species within the V. indicus complex based on molecular and morphological evidence (Ziegler et al., 2007a). Unfortunately, the genetic comparison of the new species with Varanus indicus in that paper was restricted to a single sequence of mt DNA from a Varanus indicus specimen without specific locality data. Additionally, the type locality of Varanus rainerguentheri (Jailolo, Halmahera) is disputed by the original collector (L. Wagner, pers. comm. November 2008), making the genetic and morphological argumentation a comparison between two unknown localities.

Varanus Rainerguentheri

Two of the characteristic morphological features of the holotype were the blunt snout and occurrence of a light postocular stripe. The blunt snout was never observed in the field and appears to be unique to that particular specimen. Field investigations of larger sample sizes also show that the postocular stripe is variable among Halmaheran and north Moluccan populations of V. rainerguentheri, and usually fades with age.  For example, the two specimens depicted in Setiadi and Hamidy (2006) as Varanus indicus and Varanus rainerguentheri appear to only show intraspecific variation, and cannot be allocated to different species based solely on the occurrence of a temporal stripe.

Varanus Rainerguentheri

The temporal stripe is usually less pronounced on specimens from Obi and Gebe compared to Halmahera and Morotai, though based on external features, the populations on these islands are very difficult to distinguish. Specimens from Obi do appear to have dark pigmentation further back on the tongue.

Despite the potential weaknesses in the original description, I have opted to use the name Varanus rainerguentheri for populations of the Varanus indicus-type monitors in the northern Moluccas included in this paper. A more detailed taxonomic investigation of animals from verifiable localities and with larger sample sizes is much needed to confirm the taxonomy and specific characteristics of this species, particularly since the description of Varanus rainerguentheri failed to make a comparison with the very similar animals of nearby Waigeo, which were described as Varanus chlorostigma by Gray (1831).

Varanus indicus

This name was synonymized with V. indicus by Böhme et al. (1994) and earlier authors, but the subsequent redefinition of V. indicus (Philipp et al. 1999) excludes animals from Waigeo on several characteristics (such as throat markings, tongue color and scalation). The redefinition of V. indicus invalidates this earlier synonymization, and makes V. chlorostigma a potentially available name for V. rainerguentheri.

Varanus Rainerguentheri Distribution
Varanus rainerguentheri is widely distributed, particularly around the coastlines, on Halmahera, Ternate (RMNH voucher), Tidore (MZB voucher), Morotai, Bacan, Kasiruta, Gebe and Obi (and probably on many of the smaller islands of this region).

Varanus Rainerguentheri Ecology

One hundred and twelve (112) observations were made during the course of fieldwork. On all islands except Gebe, they are mostly restricted to coastal areas and mangrove swamps High densities are also reached in brackish water river deltas and Nypa swamps. Occasionally, individuals are found further inland along freshwater streams, lakes and smaller swamps where they occur syntopically with V. caerulivirens. One individual on Bacan was encountered at an elevation of more than 200 m in a small mountain swamp. This species was only once (on Gebe) encountered in sago swamps, despite several searches in that habitat. They heavily utilize trees for basking and nighttime refuges.

Diet consists of crabs (Tanner, 1950) as well as other suitable aquatic and terrestrial prey and carrion. One individual was seen chasing aquatic prey in a small stream, while another individual was observed digging for food in a steep riverbank. On Obi and Gebe, they were also frequently seen foraging around human waste heaps at the margins of villages. The ecology of V. rainerguentheri appears to be more generalized on Gebe, where it occurs alone, from that of Halmahera and Obi where they face competition from other monitor species, probably indicating niche release (Weijola, in prep.). The largest specimen measured was 133 cm in total length, however, animals estimated to be nearer to 150 cm were observed on Obi.

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Varanus Caerulivirens Indonesia Lizard Species

Varanus Caerulivirens Indonesia Species Despite having been described so recently (Ziegler et al., 1999), the turquoise monitor  is widely distributed in the northern Moluccas and is actually often quite common in suitable habitats.

Varanus Caerulivirens Distribution 

The type locality for Varanus caerulivirens is the northern Moluccan island of Halmahera, and the only
precise locality previously published is Patani at the far eastern tip of that island (Ziegler et al., 2004). A specimen collected on Morotai in 1944 (BYU 7477) confirms its presence on that island. Investigations on Halmahera found the species to be widely distributed throughout the lowlands up to about 700 m elevation in all but the most disturbed forested habitats. Several sightings were also made in primary forests in Gunung Sibela on the island of Bacan, and this species is expected to be widespread on that island. No observations were made on Kasiruta, a large island just west of Bacan, although considering the close proximity between these islands it is likely that they do occur there.

Varanus Caerulivirens

This Varanus Caerulivirens species was also recorded in the field on Obi for the first time, an island separated from Halmahera by almost 60 km of open sea. On Obi, they are sympatric with V. rainerguentheri and V. cf. salvator. Investigations on Gebe strongly suggest that V. caerulivirens does not
reach that island, most likely making east Halmahera and Morotai the eastern limit for its range.

Varanus Caerulivirens Ecology

A total of 59 observations of V. caerulivirens were made during almost five months of work throughout  its range. This species is a forest generalist and occurs in most non-salt water influenced forest types: from
coastal forest and beach vegetation, plantations, primary and secondary lowland forests, limestone-, alluvial-
, hill- and mountain forests up to at least 600-650 m elevation. They are often found basking around small
clearings. Occasionally, specimens are encountered while patrolling freshwater streams, and on one occasion,
two specimens were observed near a lake at over 600 m elevation.

Varanus Caerulivirens

This Varanus Caerulivirens is most often encountered while actively foraging through the leaf litter layer of the forest floor, and stomach content analysis reveals that they consume burrowing animals such as earthworms, mole crickets, etc. They almost invariably seek refuge in trees when frightened by or pursued by humans and use tree cavities as night refugees, and probably for nesting as well. The claws and scales of the feet are well adapted for climbing and they make much use of tree trunks and canopies for basking, sometimes even jumping from one tree to the other.

No significant difference in habitat utilization could be observed between juveniles and adults - both were
equally terrestrial and arboreal, though admittedly far fewer sightings were made of small vs. large individuals.
It is possible that younger individuals make more extensive use of tree hollows. Dissection of sexually mature specimens revealed males to have enlarged testes throughout the year,suggesting that reproduction takes place year-round. The largest adult specimen measured 110 cm in total length,which is probably near maximum size.

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Varanus Indicus Populations In Asia

Currently, the Varanus Indicus species group is, despite the efforts of several workers, quite possibly the least resolved group of varanoid lizards in the world. They occupy a vast and difficult to access geographical region from the Solomon Islands in the east, across New Guinea with its shelf islands and parts of northern Australia, through the Moluccas as far as Talaud in the northwest, as well as some remote Pacific Island groups.

This is a region of unparalleled complex geological history consisting of thousands of variously sized islands where isolation and other evolutionary forces have driven populations to diverge and differentiate, resulting in a phylogenetic and ecological diversity that is still poorly understood.

Varanus Indicus

The Moluccan islands (Maluku) of east Indonesia forms part of the biogeographical region known as Wallacea. Traditionally considered a transition zone between the Australian and Asian faunas, many of the
islands also hold a considerable number of endemic species and have at least for some animal groups played
an important role in speciation processes (How and Kitchener, 1997, Ziegler et al., 2007b).

The number of identified species in the Varanus indicus species group in the Moluccas has risen from one to eight during the last decade (of which seven are endemic to this region), and more will inevitably be described. Sweet and Pianka (2007) review the reasons for the high diversity of small monitors (less than 130 cm total length) east of Wallace´s Line, concluding that the historical absence of predatory placental mammals has played a fundamental role in the radiation of lineages such as Euprepiosaurus.

The numerous islands with their different communities provide the ideal natural experiment to study resource partitioning and ecological release in monitors. Since studies on varanid communities have historically been largely restricted to dry and seasonally wet Australian environments, it seemed relevant to compare these “dry communities” with ones in the wet tropics, such as in the Moluccas. It is particularly interesting since most of the species within Moluccan communities are very similar in size and more closely related than within most Australian communities (where assemblies include species of several subgenera).

Varanus Indicus

Despite the recent discovery boom of new species, there has been very little fieldwork involved, and all the descriptions, except for V. lirungensis Koch et al. (2009), have been based solely on museum or animal trade specimens. The first ecological observations of many of these species were made during this study on three separate field trips in 2008 and 2009. This paper concerns varanids of the larger islands of the biogeographical northern Moluccas: Halmahera, Morotai, Bacan, Kasiruta, Gebe and Obi. The Sula
Islands are also included in the administrative unit, but group biogeographically with Sulawesi and are not
considered further here.

Varanus Indicus

 Field work was conducted during March 2008, December-February 2008-2009, mid April- mid June,
and late October-mid November 2009. Investigations were made in coastal habitats (Fig.4), lowland forests swamps, and hill forests on Halmahera, Bacan, Morotai, Gebe and Obi. These are all climatologically rather similar and are, or have historically been, covered primarily by tropical rainand evergreen forest. At present, much of the lowland forests are degraded, converted to plantations or even mined for minerals. Annual rainfall varies according to land topography, but averages between 1500 and 2000 mm. (Monk et al., 1997; Bacan Agricultural University, pers. comm. 2009), and lowland temperatures are 25-30 oC year-round. December through March tends to receive the heaviest rainfall, but most of the Moluccas rarely experience prolonged dry periods.

Many of the V. indicus group monitors can be observed by searching on foot in suitable habitats. Alternatively, some of the shyer species can be attracted to bait (fish/meat). Varanus yuwonoi is particularly difficult to observe, and the author was forced to follow a professional animal collector at work in order to see this species at all. Locating monitor lizards in tropical wet forests presents particular difficulties since it
excludes the possibility of using tracks as aid and the dense vegetation provides ample cover and places to
hide. Recurrent periods of rain and clouds often decrease activity levels of the animals, making observations
difficult for days or weeks on end. For each observation, a set of data (most importantly: habitat use, location and activity etc.) were recorded. In a few cases, dead animals were encountered and stomach content and reproductive condition was analyzed.

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Varanus Salvator Of Lizards habitat In Indonesian

The Varanus salvator population from the Central Indonesian island of Obi, Maluku Province, is described as a new subspecies representing the most easterly confirmed occurrence of the widespread Southeast Asian water monitor lizard. The new taxon differs from the four recognized subspecies by unique characters of coloration and pattern such as a distinct dorsal pattern on the head in combination with reduced transverse rows on the anterior back which stand in contrast to the distinct and black-bordered, large light spots on the hind part of the body. In addition, the eastern border of the distribution range of the V. salvator complex is critically discussed in the light of historical voucher specimens from the Moluccas, New Guinea and even Australia.

Varanus salvator

 The Obi island recor which had long been published but has never since been scrutinized, confirms the recently observed sympatric occurrence of members of the V. salvator and V. indicus species groups on several islands of the Moluccas. Further field investigations are needed to understand the different niche occupation between both these ecologically similar monitor lizard groups. Once more, our findings demonstrate the importance of the Central Indonesian islands of Wallacea as a global hotspot of varanid diversity and endemism.

The Southeast Asian water monitor lizard Varanus salvator (Laurenti, 1768) is among the largest extant
squamate reptiles of the world. It is also the most widespread member of the genus Varanus (Böhme, 2003),
ranging from Sri Lanka in the west through continental Southeast Asia, the Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands to Sulawesi and the Moluccas (Koch et al., 2007a). However, taxonomy and intraspecific diversity of this giant Asian monitor lizard species complex have long been neglected. Anew era started in 2007, when the three traditionally recognized subspecies from the Philippine Archipelago were elevated to full species status due to significant morphological differences (Koch et al., 2007a). In another recent study, the Philippine species were reinvestigated morphologically and it could be shown that  this vast archipelago harbors no less than five different species of the closely related V. salvator complex (Koch et al., 2010).

Varanus salvator

Another unresolved issue is the exact limit of the distribution range of V. salvator and its occurrence on
the islands east of Sulawesi (see Koch et al., 2007a). De Rooij (1915), for instance, examined historical voucher specimens from Halmahera but also listed Bacan (Batjan) within the species range. Mertens (1930, 1942, 1959, 1963) reported V. s. salvator from the islands of Obi, Halmahera, and Bacan at the eastern boundary, although no material from either of the latter two islands was available to him. Instead, he referred to earlier authors like Bleeker (1856, 1857, 1860a, 1860b), who had reported V. salvator from the Moluccas. Brandenburg (1983) adopted these earlier records from Halmahera and Obi. More recent authors, however, largely ignored the possible occurrence of water monitor lizards in the Moluccas (see, e.g., Eidenmüller, 2009).

Recently, however, populations of Varanus salvator were encountered on several Moluccan islands such as those of the Sula Archipelago and Obi (Weijola and Sweet, 2010). Subsequent investigations of the varanid collection at the Senckenberg Museum, Frankfurt (SMF), revealed one juvenile specimen of V. salvator from the island of Obi, which was donated by the Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense on Java, Indonesia, in 1957. This voucher specimen formed the base for Mertens’ (1959) novel island record for Obi. The specimen exactly matches in coloration and pattern with a live specimen from Obi as depicted by Weijola (2010). Due to unique characteristics in the color pattern of the Obi population, we here describe a new subspecies of the Southeast Asian water monitor lizard V. salvator.

Field work on Sulawesi and adjacent islands was conducted between 2005 and 2007. In addition, voucher
specimens of major European and Indonesian natural history museums were studied. Museum collection acronyms used follow Leviton et al. (1985).

Examination methods of standard morphometric and meristic characters used in this study are based on
the works of Mertens (1942), which were later further developed and expanded by Brandenburg (1983) and
Böhme et al. (1994). For each voucher specimen examined 21 external morphometric and meristic characters
were recorded. In order to minimize the errors based on observer bias, all measurements and scale counts were made by the senior author. In addition, four proportion indices were calculated. Character definitions and abbreviations used are listed in. Head measurements were taken with a slide-caliper to the nearest
1 mm.

Body and tail lengths of subadult and adult specimens were taken with a measuring tape. Scale counts
were recorded using pins and with check marks. A binocular microscope or a magnifying-glass was used for
juvenile specimens with very small scales. For the measurement of the scalation character Q, the first continuously tail-spanning row of scales near the tail base was counted by excluding the first rows immediately after the cloaca, which form a non-continuous bow.

The transverse scale rows on the ventral side to the insertion of the hind limbs (character T) were counted up to the last continuous row when the scales eventually decrease and are of irregular shape. In contrast to Brandenburg (1983) and Böhme et al. (1994), “N” instead of “n” abbreviates the number of gular scales from the tip of the snout to the gular fold, to avoid confusion with the stan-dardized variable “n” for the number of voucher specimens examined.

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Crocodiles Under Water and Type Crocodiles

The body is covered with a rough hide like skin, underlined by bony plates. The elongated snout terminates in a rather bulbous nose with the nostrils positioned on top so as to enable the crocodiles to breathe without difficultly when the body is submerged. The eyes, which are also placed high on the head, are well protected by the eyelids and a movable transparent membrane so that the vision is not affected under water.

Crocodiles

Crocodiles

 The throat is provided with a fleshy valve that would permit the crocodiles under water to pursue the prey, without the risk of drowning. The tail is highly muscular and propels the reptile through water easily. The colouration of the adults is rather dull, but the young ones are brightly coloured, with dark brown spots or bars on the back.

Crocodiles

The three species of crocodiles found in India are mugger (Crocodylus palustris), the salt water or estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), and the gharial or gavial (Gavialis gangeticus). Easy identification of gharial, mugger and salt waters crocodiles can be made with the shape of head and jaws The three crocodilians found in India may be easily identified: the gharial (right) has the thinnest jaws. The mugger (middle) has the broadest. The saltwater crocodile (left) has a longer snout than the mugger and no large scales behind its head.

Family Crocodillies :
- Salt Water Crocodile or Salt Water Crocodile Crocodylus porosus Schneider
- Marsh Crocodile Crocodylus palustris Lesson
Salt Water Crocodile Crocodylus porosus Schneider

Salt Water Crocodile

 The Salt Water Crocodile or estuarine crocodiles are recognized by longer muzzle and two prominent ridges running forward from the eyes and converging on the nose. The Salt Water Crocodile colour is dark olive green or brown or almost black above, and lemon yellow on the underside. The eye is yellow. It is really known to reach a length of 7 meters, although most specimens today are under 4.30 metres.

Salt Water crocodile

This Salt Water crocodile species is a truly seagoing reptile, which prefers mangrove swamps, deltas, estuaries and coasts as its habitats. It principally feeds upon fish and crustaceans, but also takes birds and mammals. The female lays from 40 to 60 eggs and buries them in to a mounded‐type nest. Incubations lasts from 75 to 90 days.

Marsh Crocodile Crocodylus palustris Lesson

Marsh Crocodile

Marsh Crocodile or Crocod ylus palustris is short and is devoid of any ridges. A square of four shields on the nape with four distinct scales between the large shield and the broad head are the most obvious features. The colour is olive or pale, with prominent dark spots in young, and black in adults. It may reach a length of 4 meters, but most specimens are under 3.25 meters.

Marsh Crocodile

 Although the species is called “Marsh Crocodile”, it is by no means restricted to marsh lands, but is also found in rivers, lakes and man‐made reservoirs, ponds or tanks. It is reported even from the Himalayan foothills and the salt lakes adjacent to estuarine area. Its principal food includes fish, frogs and crustaceans but occasionally turtles, birds and mammals.

In mangrove area, the reptiles like amphibians are occurring in different environments such as forest, land, water etc. Crocodiles are widely distributed in Asia, Africa, Madagascar, Australia, Papua New Guinea
and in North and South America. At present the estuarine crocodile is confined within India to parts of the east coast of mainland and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is recorded outside India mainly from the coasts of Sri Lanka, Burma, Malaya and Indo‐China through the Malay Archipelago to the Philippines, Northern Australia, New Guinea and Solomon Islands.

The marsh crocodile is widely distributed in India although populations are fragmented and isolated. Its area of occurrence outside India includes Iran, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Indopacific crocodiles Crocodylus porosus are abundant in the upper mangroves of the Kias river, Sabah, Malaysia. Small numbers are found in the Sundarbans where it has been depleted by hunting. In Orissa a population of 35 adults is found in the Bhitarkanika wild life sanctuary (Bustard and Choudhury, 1981). Populations are depleted in Andaman islands between 170 and 330.

The population in the Nicobar is reported to be healthy but no precise data are available (Choudhury and Bustard,1979). The Nicobar may be its last stronghold in India (Bagla and Menon, 1989). Breeding programmes are operated through the West Bengal Forest Department; the Orissa State Forest Department; and the Madras Crocodile Bank. Hatchlings are released in Bhtarkanika; in the project Tiger Reserve (Sundarbans); and in the Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary (Luxmoore et al., 1985). There is an urgent need for habitat protection and the species has received some protection in the Mahanadi
Delta (Scott, 1989).

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Varanus Hydrosuarus and Psammosarus

Varanus sp. was reported from the mangroves of east coast of India (Kathiresan and Rajendran, 2000).
The name of “Monitor” bestowed upon these creatures has a curious origin, owing to a ridiculous etymological mistake. The Arabic term for lizard is “Ouaran”.

Varanus-dumerili

Varanus salvator

This has been wrongly taken to mean warning lizard, hence the Latin word‐Monitor. One of the many synonymous of this genus varanus are Hydrosuarus and Psammosarus.

Varanus cummingi

Varanus jobiensis-batanta

Varanus rudicolis

Many of the “Monitors” are semi‐aquatic, and others inhabit dry, sandy areas, while others are in well‐wooded localities. They are rapacious, taking whatever animals they can master according to their size, which in some species amounts to 6 to 7 feet.

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