Tundra Swan Monster For Fish

Unlike mute swans, tundra swans have a straight neck when swimming. Tundra swans are migrant visitors in Pennsylvania, breeding throughout arctic Canada, Alaska, and northeastern Siberia. These swans begin breeding between ages three and five, and they mate for life. Both adults care for, and aggressively defend, their young. Hunting, Tundra Swan where safe and legal, is the preferred method of reducing nonmigratory waterfowl populations, and over time may serve to decrease damage. Hunting also makes harassment techniques more effective. In some cases, municipal ordinances would need to be changed to permit hunting in nontraditional hunting areas such as parks, estates, golf courses, and corporate facilities, with perhaps special restrictions on hours and dates open to hunting. The Pennsylvania Game Commission can provide information on current waterfowl hunting regulations and seasons.

There are a number of nonlethal techniques that are effective in discouraging waterfowl. The key to their success is promptness and persistence. It is important to initiate control measures as soon as you notice these unwanted guests don’t wait until a large flock builds up. Once waterfowl become established, they are reluctant to leave and are more tolerant of control methods. A combination of methods works best since waterfowl quickly become accustomed to any single technique. The following control techniques have been proven successful, but they will work only if they are applied with diligence and persistence.

Well-fed domestic “tundra swan park ducks” and geese serve as decoys, encouraging wild birds to congregate in unnaturally high concentrations. Wild waterfowl are capable of finding their own food and will survive without handouts from people. Therefore, eliminating artificial feeding of waterfowl on public and private property should be the first control measure undertaken. Ordinances against feeding can be enacted and enforced by county or local authorities. It is important that a public education campaign accompany any anti-feeding ordinances to stimulate public interest, participation, and support.

Waterfowl can be repelled by almost any large foreign object or mechanical noise-making device. Frightening devices should be in place before the start of the damage season to prevent waterfowl from establishing a use pattern. To improve their effectiveness and prevent tundra swan from becoming accustomed to them, these devices should be moved every two to three days and used in varying combinations. All applicable laws must be observed when using these devices, particularly those governing the making of loud noises, discharging of firearms, use of pyrotechnics, and use of free-running dogs. Also, consider the possible reaction of neighbors. Nesting waterfowl cannot be harassed without a federal permit. In addition, Tundra Swan molt their flight feathers from June through August and should not be harassed during this time.

Visual repellents such as flags, balloons, and scarecrows can be used at a density of one per 3 to 5 acres before waterfowl settle in the area. If birds have already become accustomed to using an area, an additional one or more per acre may be necessary. Because geese can quickly become acclimated to visual repellents, reinforcement with audio repellents such as automatic exploders, pyrotechnics, or distress calls will be necessary.

Because adult mute tundra swans aggressively protect their young from Canada geese, swan decoys arranged in “family groups” have been somewhat effective in discouraging geese from settling in an area. Each swan “family” should include two large, 35-inch styrofoam or woodenc“adult” tundracswans surrounding two or three smaller “young” tundra swans. Tundra Swan decoys should be anchored on a tether withcenough slack in the rope to allow for changes in water levelcand to allow decoys to move with the wind. To make thiscapproach effective, use frightening devices to remove allcwaterfowl currently using the lake or pond, install enough swan groups to be visible from all parts of the pond, diminish other attractions in the area, and frighten away any small flocks of geese that land.

Tundra Swans

 Where feasible, limit lawn size and increase grass height to 10-14 inches, especially along shorelines. Consider replacing large lawn areas with shrubs, ground covers such as pachysandra and myrtle, or grass species that are not palatable to waterfowl. Tundra swans prefer to feed in bluegrass (Poa spp.), so planting tall fescue (Festuca arundinaceae) will reduce grazing. Planting trees will interfere with birds’ flight paths, and shrubs will reduce birds’ ability to see from the ground. Groups of shrubs and trees should be planted to break up the open landscape and reduce visibility. Landscaping techniques that reduce birds’ view to less than 25 to 30 feet discourages grazing, especially if harassment programs also are used.


Tundra Swans Habitat
There are several ways to make a pond and its surrounding area unattractive to waterfowl. Tundra Swans generally will not establish nesting territories in areas where they cannot easily walk in and out of the water. Therefore, constructing a pond so that there is an abrupt 18- to 24-inch vertical bank at the water’s edge will deter geese. In locations such as levees or banks around airport runways, use large boulder rip-rap, which geese cannot easily climb over. Large boulder rip-rap, however, may provide nesting or loafing habitat for gulls.

Waterfowl also can be deterred by eliminating emergent aquatic vegetation with herbicides or an aquatic weed harvester, or by temporarily draining the pond. Contact the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission at (814) 359- 5147 for specific recommendations and permits for vegetation management in ponds. Unfortunately, removing vegetation also will reduce habitat quality for other wildlife and fish species, so use it with caution. If possible, discourage removal of woody brush from shorelines. In winter, shut off aerators to allow water to freeze. Reduce or eliminate fertilizer applications to areas surrounding ponds so that grass is less nutritious for grazing waterfowl. Prohibit feeding of waterfowl and construction of nesting structures around ponds, and plant shrubs on bare shorelines and on islands to reduce attractiveness for feeding, loafing, and nesting.

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Mallards Conservations and Habitat

The number of mallards in Pennsylvania exceeds 160,000 birds. Most mallards in the state begin breeding as one-year-olds. They seek a new mate each year, and the female raises the young alone. Some nuisance mallards are wild birds, but many were raised in captivity and released by private individuals or clubs. Many of these birds concentrate in urban and suburban ponds, along with large flocks of domestic ducks. Mallards born in Pennsylvania typically remain in the area until their water source freezes for the winter. They then migrate to southern parts of the state and to Maryland or the Chesapeake Bay.

Although not as effective as exclusion in the long term, repellents can be useful for short-term control. Methyl anthranilate, a chemical that has taste and olfactory repellent properties, is currently registered with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for controlling waterfowl. This product is currently marketed under the trade name ReJeX-iT. It was developed using food-grade ingredients that have the unique ability to repel birds while remaining safe for Mallards and birds, humans, and other mammals. There are three different ReJeX-iT products available one for use on turf and lawns and two for use on nonfishbearing bodies of water.

Agricultural damage can be reduced by timing planting or harvesting periods so they do not coincide with waterfowl migration. Many grains planted in spring are vulnerable to waterfowl damage during fall migration because they are swathed at harvest time, allowed to dry in the field, and then combined. Where conditions permit, production of winter grains instead of spring grains may limit waterfowl damage because winter grains usually can be straight combined in July and August, long before migrating waterfowl arrive in the area. A winter grain’s rosette of leaves is vulnerable to grazing damage by waterfowl in fall and spring, however, research has shown that light grazing of the winter rosette actually can increase grain yield.

Normally, Mallards and tundra swans are wary and prefer to feed in open lands where they can see the surrounding countryside. They also require open areas in which to land and are very reluctant to land in standing corn. Cornfields opened up by silage cutting, or by cutting the outer rows prior to picking, provide a landing space for waterfowl. If possible, do not open fields prior to the main harvest period. Once a field is open, harvest corn as soon as it is ripe and in as short a time as possible, and protect the field with one or more scare devices.

Waterfowl damage to unharvested fields can be limited by encouraging Mallards to feed in the stubble of harvested crops, in baited fields, or in lure crops that are planted to attract and hold waterfowl. Lure crops can be established in areas known to have high waterfowl damage and should be planted with grains that are particularly attractive for waterfowl. When using good-quality seed, plant at the normal rate. When using commodity grain or out-of-date seed, increase the planting rate by a factor of 1.5 to 2. Do not allow any hunting or harassment of waterfowl in the lure crop area until all surrounding crops are harvested and the threat of crop damage is over.

Mallards

Field-baiting involves scattering grain in previously harvested fields or at natural waterfowl feeding areas to attract and hold waterfowl and keep them away from unharvested fields. Field baiting is most effective when done within two to three days of the birds’ arrival. There are no set rules about the amount or type of bait to use, but provide enough to ensure that no birds will go elsewhere to feed, and use a grain that birds prefer. Often this can be the same seed that is grown in surrounding fields. Do not allow any harassment of waterfowl in the area of the baited field until all crops are harvested.

Regardless of the method used, it may be necessary to initially scare or herd the waterfowl away from surrounding fields until they have settled in the lure crop or in the baited field and have stopped visiting the other crops. State law requires that all artificial feeding be stopped and all grain removed at least 30 days before hunting waterfowl within the zone of influence of the baited area.

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Geese and Canada Geese Habitat and Populations

Geese, ducks, and swans have always been a treasured natural resource in Pennsylvania. These birds are enjoyed by millions of people each year, whether they are birdwatchers, hunters, or just those who appreciate their presence. The fall flights of geese and swans in their characteristic “V”-flock formation are familiar and welcome signs of the changing seasons. However, because of recent dramatic increases in waterfowl populations, these birds have become a nuisance in some places. A lack of predators, decreased opportunities for waterfowl hunting, food handouts, and landscapes consisting of large expanses of turfgrass have provided ideal conditions for these birds.

Although most people find a few ducks or geese acceptable, waterfowl populations can quickly get out of hand. For example, one pair of geese can, in five to seven years, easily become 50 to 100 birds that foul ponds and damage lawns, golf courses, and crops. This fact sheet provides information on controlling damage caused by Canada Canada geese, ducks, and swans.

Canada geese mate for life, with both parents caring for, and aggressively protecting, their young. Canada geese in Pennsylvania consist of both migratory and nonmigratory populations. Migratory populations are the Atlantic Population and the Southern James Bay Population. These two populations nest in Canada and migrate south for the winter. Adults of both populations do not breed until three years of age. Both of these migratory populations have declined in size because of poor survival and low reproduction since 1985.

By contrast, the nonmigratory, or resident, population in Pennsylvania has grown from approximately 2,400 from 1955-60 to more than 150,000 in 1993. Adults in this population can begin breeding at age two and have a higher survival rate than migrating birds. The resident population consists of nonmigratory birds that nest and reside in the Mid-Atlantic states, including Pennsylvania, throughout the year. Because harvest restrictions that protect the migratory populations also have protected the resident population, Pennsylvania has recently established special hunting seasons to target the resident population of geese. These seasons take place when migrant populations are not in the state.

Canada geese may be discouraged from using ponds by installing a 30- to 36-inch-high poultry-wire fence at the water’s edge. This technique, however, is not effective for ducks. Three-foot-high woven-wire fences around gardens and yards also will help keep geese out of these places because adult geese with young will not cross a fence and leave their young behind. Geese also are reluctant to pass under a wire fence, so installing a single-strand fence, or one made of Mylar flashing tape, at a height of about 15 inches may discourage geese from entering an area. A 2-to 3-strand goose-resistant fence can be placed around lawns, gardens, and crop areas. Place the first strand 1 foot above the ground, with each succeeding strand 1.5 feet
above the previous strand. Snow drift fences and electric livestock fences have also proven effective.

Good results also have been reported using 20-pound test, or heavier, monofilament line to make a 2- to 3-strand fence in situations where aesthetics preclude the use of wire fencing. String the first line 6 inches off the ground, with each additional line spaced 6 inches above the preceding line. Suspend thin strips of aluminum foil at 3- to 6-foot intervals along the lines to increase visibility of the barrier for wildlife and people. The best results are obtained when the fence is in place before geese start grazing.

To stop waterfowl from using reservoirs, lakes, ponds, and fish-rearing facilities, overhead grids can be constructed of thin cable visible to both humans and waterfowl. White or brightly colored cables may improve visibility. Because these materials are extremely light, several hundred feet can be supported between two standard, 5-foot, steel fence posts. Grids on 20-foot centers will stop geese, and grids on 10-foot centers will stop most ducks. Where necessary, grid lines should be installed high enough to allow people and equipment to move beneath them. Excessive rubbing will result in line breakage, so grid wires should be tied together
wherever two lines cross. 

Attach lines independently to each post and not in a constant run, to prevent having to rebuild the entire grid if a line breaks. Where total exclusion is needed, use 1- to 1.5-inch mesh polypropylene UV-protected netting. Support the netting with at least 0.19-inch, 7 x 19-strand galvanized coated cable on 20-foot centers. Support cables must be well anchored to carry the weight of the netting and to allow the cable to be stretched tight to eliminate sag. High winds are the greatest hazard to this type of netting installation, so netting should be attached to the support cables to prevent wind-caused abrasion.

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Mute Swans Habitat In Waterfowl

Mute swans are not native to North America but were first introduced from Europe in the late 1800s. Consequently, they are an unprotected species in Pennsylvania. They begin breeding at two or three years of
age, and their population has grown to more than 9,500 swans in the Northeast. They mate for life, and both adults care for the young. The adults can be extremely aggressive when protecting their young. Mute swans consume large amounts of aquatic vegetation that other fish and wildlife species depend on for food and shelter. Mute swans usually have an arching neck as they swim.

Waterfowl have two primary habitat requirements. First, they need a permanent body of water on which to land, escape, rest, and roost. Second, they must have a suitable open feeding area that provides a place to land, has good visibility of the surrounding territory, and has abundant tender young grass and other vegetation for feeding. Mallards are primarily filter feeders and will consume almost anything edible. Swans eat aquatic plants, and geese eat a variety of terrestrial grasses.

Mute Swans

All species will come on land to feed, typically twice a day, in the morning and late afternoon. However, they may feed at night if their normal daytime habits are disturbed. Normally waterfowl roost on open water at night.

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Charolais Cattle With Bos Tourus Genetic

Bos taurus

Bos taurus breeds are descendants of the ancient Celtic Shorthorn. Bos taurus breeds show a closer resemblance to the Aurochs, particularly Scotch Highland cattle, than Bos indicus breeds. Bos taurus can be classified into two sub-categories, British breeds and Continental breeds. Continental breeds, also called Exotics, are breeds that originated in Europe. These cattle are known for weight gain and cutability. Continental breeds are generally large in size, lean, muscular, and vary in adaptability to hot climates. The following Continental breeds are commonly found in the United States.

Charolais Cattle

The Charolais breed was developed in France and was introduced into the United States in 1936. This breed ranges from white to light straw in color. Charolais cattle can be horned or polled. This large, heavily muscled breed’s traits include a fast growth rate and feed efficiency.

Complete albinism was reported from two purebred Charolais herds. The first calf brought to us was a 2-week-old purebred bull Charolais calf, and it was presented to us because of blindness. Six such blind calves were seen over a 5 year period in this purebred Kansas Charolais herd. They were sired by the same bull and all 5 dams were half sisters. One dam had an albino calf in successive years. After removal of the bull no more cases of albinism were observed. Bull and all dams involved had normal eye color. A 5-week-old male purebred Charolais calf from a 50 head purebred cow Charolais herd in Missouri was presented to us in lateral recumbency. It had opisthotonus, nystagmus, and appeared to be blind. The owner had not encountered any other animal with pigmentary anomalies previously. The animal was euthanatized and necropsied.

Albinism appears to be a rare defect. In Swiss Brown cattle in Switzerland, the recessive gene was estimated to house a frequency of 0.002 I( NZENWRIED & A-LU V,ERGNE 1970). In a US survey of bovine birth defects involving over 70,000 births, no albinos were encountered, making the frequency of the albino gene, if recessive, to be less than 0.004 E( IPLOLD et al., 1972). R GEENE et al. (1973) concluded that the type of inheritance of albinism in Beef Shorthorns appeared to be recessive. The pattern of occurrence of albinism in these two purebred Charolais herds is suggestive of a recessive mode of inheritance. However, further investigations are warranted to elucidate the exact nature of inheritance of complete albinism among Charolais cattle.

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Simbrah and Simbrah Cattle Breeding Breeders

The Simbrah breed  was developed in the United States in the late 1960s. This breed is a composite breed that consists of 5/8 Simmental and 3/8 Brahman. There are no color standards for Simbrah cattle. Simbrahs can be horned or polled. The Simbrah breed has both maternal and survival characteristics in a hot environment and produces a modern, lean, high-quality beef product. Simbrah combines the strengths of the two most populous breeds of cattle in the world Simmental and Brahman. The fertility, milking ability and rapid growth of the Simmental is complemented by the heat tolerance and hardiness of the Brahman. The initial development of the Simbrah cattle breed occurred predominantly in the Gulf Coast region of the U.S. However, the popularity of the Simbrah cattle now extends to many parts of the country.

Breeding Simbrah Cattle

A purebred animal consists of 5/8 Simmental and 3/8 Brahman breeding. The degree of heterosis (hybrid vigor) in the first generation purebred will depend on how Simmental and Brahman are combined (see Table).
Matings of purebred Simmental and 1/4 Simmental x 3/4 Brahman parents result in a greater degree of heterosis in the calf than matings of 3/4 Simmental x 1/4 Brahman and 1/2 Simmental x 1/2 Brahman parents.
Differences among the dams used in the cross will also influence performance. As Brahman breeding of the dam increases, calf birth weight will generally decrease; as level of Simmental breeding of the dam increases, calf birth weight and calf weaning weight will generally increase.

Breeder Goals
Simbrah breeders should strive to produce a breed of beef cattle that is acceptable worldwide truly, “The World’s Breed.”
• Adaptable to many environments and management systems.
• Able to maximize production income while minimizing production costs.
• Bulls able to settle a high percentage of females in a short breeding season.
• Females able to calve without assistance by 24 months of age and every 12 months thereafter.
• Feeder calves able to adapt quickly to the feedlot environment, gaining rapidly and efficiently, and produce a high percentage of lean meat of acceptable quality.

Trait Selection
Sound Feet and Legs
Legs should be well-placed and relatively straight with a moderate degree of angulation to the hock. Avoid animals with extremely straight rear legs (post-legged), with extreme hock angle (sickle hocked) or with weak pasterns. Feet should be straight, allowing the animal’s weight to be carried evenly. The hoof should be almost round, relatively large in proportion to body size and have two claws of equal size and shape. Avoid animals whose feet “toe in” or “toe out,” whose hooves are crooked or small in relation to body size.

Reproductive Potential
Both males and females should show potential for high reproductive performance. Simbrah bulls should appear to be strong, virile and athletic. The testicles should be well developed, of equal size and hang straight in the scrotum. The sheath should not extend below an imaginary line drawn from the knee to the hocks. The prepucial orfice should be small and open at a 45 degree angle to the body.

Avoid bulls lacking secondary sexual features, those with abnormal or inadequate testicular development, a
pendulous or funnel shaped sheath, a large prepucial opening, a prolapsing or lazy prepuce. Simbrah females should show evidence of femininity. They should breed at an early age, calve at regular yearly intervals and show evidence of good mothering ability. Their udder should be well attached both front and rear, have a level floor and four well-placed medium size teats. Females should produce a generous volume of milk adequate to sustain the growth of their calf until weaning. Avoid females that show evidence of masculinity and are late breeders. Cull those that have pendulous udders or large misshapened teats as well as those that fail to mother their calf and provide adequate milk.

Frame Size and Type

Selection for reproductive efficiency will ultimately determine the frame size and type best suited to each production environment. Additional constraints may come from different management and marketing systems. In general, Simbrah should be of medium to large frame, have a strong, straight topline showing muscularity uniformly from behind the shoulders through the loin area, and thickness in the hindquarters and lower stifle area. Breeders should avoid extremely large frame sizes associated with delayed puberty, larger mature size and increased feed requirements of breeding females. Extremely small as well as extremely large frame size can also mean unacceptable market weights of commercial feeder and slaughter cattle. Breeders should also avoid extremes in muscling.

Very heavy muscling is associated with calving problems and infertility. Light muscling simply means less meat. Simbrah animals should show sufficient body capacity and fleshing ability to sustain satisfactory reproductive performance with limited amounts of feed. Avoid animals that are swayback, pinched behind the shoulders, have a small heart girth or lack spring of rib. Simbrah should also have a moderate amount of dewlap while still maintaining a relatively clean naval flap and sheath area. The skin contains important sweat glands that help the animal cope with hot weather.

Temperament
A good disposition is also important. Cattle should be relatively quiet and easy to handle.

Performance in Production Traits
Final selection should be based on actual performance in production traits. ASA’s herd performance and national sire evaluation programs can help breeders to evaluate both individual and expected progeny performance in traits such as calving ease, birth weight, weaning weight, yearling weight, maternal calving ease, maternal weaning weight and maternal milking ability. Check with ASA for more information. To be successful in today’s industry, Simbrah breeders must produce functional cattle with measured performance in traits important to commercial cattlemen.

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Santa Gertrudis and Santa Gertrudis Cattle Breeds

The Santa Gertrudis breed (see Figure 4) was developed on the King Ranch in Kingsville, Texas. This composite breed consists of 5/8 Shorthorn and 3/8 Brahman. Santa Gertrudis cattle are dark red in color and can be horned or polled. Santa Gertrudis cattle are a desirable breed because of their overall hardiness. This breed adapts to adverse conditions and is productive in hot climates. Santa Gertrudis cattle also possess many desirable maternal characteristics.

There are approximately 250 breeds* of cattle recognized throughout the world, and several hundred breeds that are not currently recognized. More than eighty recognized breeds of beef cattle are available to producers in the United States. However, an exact count is difficult to obtain because other breeds continue to be imported and crossing existing breeds continuously creates new breeds. A breed is a group of animals of common descent and possessing distinctive characteristics that distinguish them from other groups within the same species. These groups are referred to as purebreds. The term purebred refers to the purity of ancestry and implies that there is genetic uniformity of all characteristics.

Santa Gertrudis

Santa Gertrudis Cattle

 Knowledge of breed characteristics is important to beef producers in purebred and crossbreeding programs. Crossbreeding is considered to be the most efficient means of commercial production, but highly productive purebreds are the backbone of successful commercial crossbreeding programs. Crossbreeding programs use breeds that possess complimentary characteristics to produce desirable offspring. The major characteristics that are important in beef production include mature body size, milk production, age at puberty, environmental adaptability, rate and efficiency of gain, muscle expression, cutability, and marbling.

Santa Gertrudis Bulls

The major characteristics differ in relative economic importance, especially when considering different
phases of the production system. Reproduction traits such as milk production and age at puberty are the
primary concern of a cow-calf producer, while efficiency of gain, rate of gain and carcass traits are most
important to stocker and feeder operations. Two characteristics that have a marked effect on most production
traits are mature body size and milk production. Other indicators that may be important are muscle
expression and age at puberty.

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Brangus and Brangus Cattle Genetics Breeders

The Brangus breed was developed in the United States. Registered Brangus, a composite breed, consists of 3/8 Brahman and 5/8 Angus. Brangus cattle are black in color and are polled. The Brangus breed has combined many of the most desirable traits of the Brahman and Angus breeds. Some of these traits include hardiness, heat tolerance, muscularity, early maturity, and production of quality beef.

Brangus cattle Breedplan is a modern genetic evaluation system for livestock breeders. It is applied by ABRI to the cattle industries in many countries but it can be customised for other species. BREEDPLAN offers you the potential to accelerate genetic progress in your herd, tighten up your breeding operations, improve productivity and increase the prices of your livestock. It can put a lot more cash in your pocket. Breedplan uses the world's most advanced genetic evaluation system (ie. an "animal model" which incorporates multi-trait analysis procedures) to produce Estimated Breeding Values (EBVs) of recorded cattle for a range of traits (eg. fertility, weight, carcase).

Brangus Cattle

Brangus Breedplan is integrated with the pedigree systems of many breeds. With the increasing use of artificial insemination, most herds within a breed have genetic links with other herds. BREEDPLAN technology can be used at a number of levels eg. within-herd analyses for individual breeders, across-herd analyses for members of a breed association or breeding group and international genetic evaluations where breed associations from a number of countries pool their data for analysis. Brangus Breedplan is the national beef recording scheme in Australia, New Zealand, Namibia, Thailand and the Philippines. Its use is increasing in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Hungary, South America, South Africa and the United Kingdom.

Red Brangus

At ABS, we recognize the value of the Brangus breed in challenging environments. In the hot, humid areas of the Southeastern tier of the U.S. Brangus cattle are able to maintain/improve performance and fertility. In more arid climates in the Southwest and Western states, Brangus cattle have the ability to travel, forage and survive on the toughest ranges. Not limited to these areas, Brangus cattle are found from border to border and coast to coast. In areas where breeders have utilized English breeds for several generations, there is often a need to interject heterosis through planned crossbreeding.

Brangus initiative is to supply environmentally adapted genetics for both registered and commercial cattlemen across the U.S. and the world. Over the past several years, we have built a Brangus lineup that combines some of the breed’s most proven cow families with performance oriented and calving ease genetics. Brangus cattle are 5/8 Angus and 3/8 Brahman. Angus genetics provide maternal and carcass value while Brahman
genetics add environmental adaptability and insect resistance. Over the past ten years, seedstock Brangus breeders have methodically and selectively added muscle and intramuscular fat while moderating mature size and cleaning sheath designs. Today’s progressive Brangus genetics have the ability to exceed the needs of producers in a wide array of environments while meeting feedlot and packer challenges.

Brangus Bull

Brangus cattle can do this without losing maternal or carcass value. At the same time, Brangus genetics can be combined in an Exotic rotational system to provide this same maternal advantage. Longevity, “do ability” and foraging ability all come as additive advantages in each of these scenarios. As we began to build our Brangus lineup, we established criteria that most cattlemen can relate to. Beginning at the ground and working upward, all of the sires have been evaluated for correct feet, joints and skeletal design. We understand the environments the Brangus progeny will be expected to survive in, so soundness is of the utmost priority. Equally as important, are fertility, fleshing ability and docility. Once we have identified these traits in a bull, it has been important to recognize the value of his dam and sire’s progeny performance, correct maturity patterns and desirable sheaths.

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Brahman Cow Brahman Cattle Brahman Bull Breeders

Bos indicus

Brahman Cow, Brahman Cattle, Brahman Bull. Bos indicus (also referred to as Zebu-type) are humped cattle originating in South Central Asia. Bos indicus are adapted to tropical and sub-tropical environments, which include the stresses of heat, humidity, parasites, and poorly digestible forages. Environmental adaptability and hybrid vigor of cattle with a percentage of Zebu-type breeding are particularly significant in the southern part of the United States. The general vigor, especially early in life and reproductive efficiency of purebred Bos indicus may be poor, but this can be remedied through crossbreeding.

Hybrid Bos indicus-Bos taurus cattle are generally vigorous and fertile. Formal research and commercial producer experience reveals that the most practical and productive commercial application is with crossbred cows that have some Bos indicus genetics. The birth weight of purebred Bos indicus calves are unusually low. This seems to be primarily a maternal characteristic. When Bos indicus bulls are used on other types of females, the birth weights are higher. Bos indicus cattle are later maturing than Bos taurus, but their longevity is greater than Bos taurus.

Some examples of Bos indicus cattle are the Nelore, Gyr, Guzerat, Brahman, Brangus, and Beefmaster breeds. The Brahman, Brangus, Beefmaster, and other Bos indicus breeds developed in the United States
are often referred to as American breeds. Several of these breeds are composite breeds, which means that they were developed by crossing two or more breeds, but these breeds are still classified as Bos indicus. The following are Bos indicus breeds that are commonly found in the United States.

The Brahman Cow breed originated in the United States from humped cattle that were imported from India and Brazil. Brahman cattle are a horned breed that vary in color, but are predominantly gray and red. Brahman cattle are humped, have large drooping ears, and loose skin in the throat and dewlap. These cattle have a very high tolerance to heat and have a natural resistance to many parasites. They are considered a maternal breed. If the Brahman bull looks like it was put together from the parts of several different animals, that’s because it was, in a way. The ancestors of Brahman cattle were several different types of hump-backed cattle from India. Cattle breeders in the southern United States developed Brahman cattle between 1854 and 1926.

The Brahman has a humped back, long, drooping ears and loose skin. Like the camel, the Brahman stores food and water in the odd-looking hump on its back. The hump is a deposit of fat. Farmers and ranchers in the southeastern US and the Gulf States like to raise Brahman cattle because they can stand the heat, and insects don’t bother them much. Some cattle breeders have tried crossing Brahman cattle with other breeds of American beef cattle to develop other breeds that can stand harsh conditions. Brahman cattle are also called “Brahma” or “zebu.” Many Brahmans are light to medium gray, but there are some that are red and some that are almost black. Brahman bulls weigh between 1,600 and 2,200 pounds. Brahman cows weigh between 1,000 and 1,400 pounds.

Brahman cattle a breed of cattle developed in the southern United States from stock originating in India having a hump between the shoulders and a large fold of loose skin hanging from the neck breed (n) A group of animals descending from a common ancestry and possessing certain common characteristics which distinguish it from any other group. (v) To cause to reproduce, especially by controlled mating and selection. To develop new or improved strains in animals or plants. Zebu a domesticated bovine mammal of Asia and Africa, having a prominent hump on the back and a large fold of loose skin hanging for the neck

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Stingray Under Water Marine Park

Stingray

The smooth ray is the largest stingray in the world. When fully grown they can reach over 4m in length and weight over 350kg! Discover Stingray Bay, a relaxing coastal lagoon, in AQWA’s Marmion Marine Park. Stingrays have a barbed, venomous spine located on their tail. Stingrays don’t actually ‘sting’ to catch their food, but if provoked will use their barb out of defence. A close relative of the shark, stingrays have skeletons composed of cartilage. They are distinguished from sharks by a flattened body, which varies in shape from almost circular to diamond-shaped.

Stingrays have flat grinding teeth which they use to crush food, such as crabs. A stingray’s mouth is underneath its body, helping it to catch food on the sea floor. To propel themselves through the water stingrays, such as eagle rays ‘flap’ their side fins alike a bird. Other stingrays, such as the smooth ray, move their side fins in a wave like motion and can swim backwards! You can find stingrays in warm temperate and tropical ocean waters throughout the world. They spend most of their time near the sea floor and will hide buried underneath the sand. In Perth, you are most likely to see stingrays in shallow coastal areas.

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Clownfish and Nemo Fish In Habitat

Clownfish (family: Pomacentridae), also known as anemonefish, are some of the most iconic marine fish in the world. They are highly popular among SCUBA divers due to their striking colour combinations of white, orange, yellow and brown. There are a total of 28 species of clownfish, which are all very similar in their habits. Perhaps the most renowned of these is the Common Clownfish (Amphiprion ocellaris), which was popularised in the Walt Disney movie ‘Finding Nemo’.

Clownfish are found in tropical and subtropical areas of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The greatest diversity of clownfish is found close to Papua New Guinea, although the Great Barrier Reef in Australia is also known for a number of unique variants. Within their range, clownfish are restricted to shallow waters due to their fascinating relationship with only a handful of specific sea-anemone species upon which they depend. While most fish are repelled by the anemones’ poisonous stings, the clownfish acquires immunity to this defence, and is therefore able to use it for its own protection against predators. In return, clownfish keep their host anemone in a healthy state, and prevent them from being attacked by angelfishes and sea turtles, (which are also immune to the sea anemone’s stinging tentacles).

Nemo Fish

A single sea-anemone may support several clownfish, all of which, excluding one single female, are males at various stages of development. Should the sole female die, then the largest male turns into a female and continues breeding. Clownfish lay their eggs beneath the oral disc of their host sea anemone and these are guarded by the male. When the eggs hatch, larvae are carried away by ocean currents and most perish.
As a larva develops, it begins to use chemical signals present in the water to detect a suitable anemone to be used as its new home. These signals permit the young fish to select the right type of anemone, and ensure that it is different from its place of birth to avoid inbreeding. The period between hatching and seeking a new anemone ‘home’ is notably short (around 8–12 days), meaning that they do not disperse very far from their parents’ anemone.

The most significant impacts of climate change on clownfish are those affecting their coral reef habitat, and water temperature and chemistry. Such changes may affect clownfish in a number of ways.

Loss of habitat as coral reefs decline:
At today’s level of 387 ppm CO2, coral reefs are seriously declining and time-lagged effects will result in their continued demise. If CO2 levels are allowed to reach 450 ppm (due to occur by 2030–2040 at the current rates of increase), reefs will be in rapid and terminal decline world-wide from multiple synergies arising from mass bleaching, ocean acidification, and other environmental impacts (more details are available in the staghorn coral account).

Clownfish depend on sea-anemones, which are most frequently found on coral reefs. Reef-dependent species such as the clownfish will undoubtedly be affected by the decline in coral reefs. In 1998, one of the most severe global coral bleaching events in recorded history led to the complete disappearance of several sea-anemone species used by clownfish in the corals reefs around Sesoko Island, Japan, causing local population declines.

Clown Fish

Disruption of navigation as ocean acidity rises:
Increases in ocean acidity levels have been shown to affect clownfish’s ability to detect the chemical signals necessary for navigating to and locating their anemone homes. This effect is known to be particularly severe in juvenile fish. Fish that are unable to locate a suitable hiding place are at a much higher risk of predation, and are much less likely to find other clownfish with which to mate.

Juvenile fish that are unable to locate new anemones to inhabit also have a much greater chance of returning to their original place of birth. While such individuals may be considered fortunate for at least finding protection, the likelihood of inbreeding in these fish is greatly increased. Adult clownfish, although less susceptible to the loss of chemical cues, can still become confused and lost when venturing away from their host anemone. An extended period away from their host commonly leads to the loss of their immunity to their anemones’ poison, and a much greater risk of predation. In order to regain this immunity, the fish must perform an elaborate ‘dance’, which may last up to several hours and further increases the chances of predation.

Ocean warming changes development rates:
All fish are ‘cold-blooded’ or ectothermic, which means that all aspects of their life-history are highly influenced by the surrounding water temperature. As ocean temperatures continue to increase we may expect to see a number of effects on clownfish. Juvenile clownfish have been shown to develop faster as water temperatures increase (assuming sufficient food is available). There are potential immediate benefits to individuals such as faster reproductive turnover, but more rapid growth will generally mean that individuals disperse shorter distances from their parents’ anemone before their development stage triggers the instinct to find their own anemone. The resulting decrease in dispersal distances means greater competition for local dwelling places, greater chance of predation and increased inbreeding.

A further threat to clownfish associated with warming ocean temperatures relates to their reproductive behaviour. Clownfish (as with many other fish species) are known to only reproduce within a very small temperature range. It follows, therefore, that an increase in temperature could discourage clownfish from breeding. High temperatures have also been shown to cause eggs to perish. Either of these outcomes, or a combination of the two, could have disastrous consequences for clownfish. In summary, a combination of habitat loss, disruption of their olfactory senses and direct effects to their physiology makes clownfish particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change.

Clownfish and Nemo Fish

Clownfish Adapt to Climate

As ocean temperatures warm, clownfish may be forced to shift their ranges polewards to find cooler water. However, clownfish larvae travel only short distances from their parents’ anemone, and increased development rates caused by warming, coupled with the need for parallel dispersal in interdependent sea-anemone species, is likely to limit dispersal further.
To avoid the negative effects of warming on reproduction and egg survival, clownfish could potentially adapt behaviourally to time such events during cooler periods or seasons. However, the potential for such changes in clownfish are, as yet, unexplored. The problems caused to clownfish by habitat loss will require movement to new areas of suitable habitat.

Obviously such areas will be limited in number and, once again owing to the poor mobility of the species, will only be accessible if they are relatively close by. One species of clownfish has recently been shown to use soft corals as an alternative habitat, something only ever previously witnessed in captivity. Whether such behaviour could be adopted by other species of clownfish, and, if so, whether it would serve to alleviate pressure on clownfish, is currently unclear.

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Arabian Camel Pets and Animal

Camel Camelus dromedarius


Arabian camels form groups of two to 20 individuals consisting of one dominant male, several adult females plus sub-adults and young. The dominant male of the family will protect the females from stray males, and also directs the family from the rear when moving with the females who take turns leading. Female camels are sexually mature at three to four years and males at five to six years. Mating occurs during the rutting season which is during the wet months at the beginning of the year. After a gestation of about 15 months, females give birth to a single calf weighing about 80 pounds (37 kg). The calf’s eyes are open at birth and its body is covered with a thick woolly coat. Calves can run when they are only a few hours old. The calf nurses for up to 18 months. Life span is about 40 years in the wild and up to 50 years in captivity.

Camel Camelus dromedarius

Adaptations

Arabian (dromedary) camels have a single hump – like the letter “D”. The hump is used to store fat not water. The fat can be converted to energy when needed. The Bactrian camel has two humps like the letter “B”. Camels are called “Ships of the Desert” because they are uniquely adapted to survive the harsh conditions of the desert habitat. They have large flat feet with leathery pads and two toes on each foot. When the camel places its foot on the ground the pads spread out preventing the foot from sinking into the sand. Their eyes are protected by a double row of long curly eyelashes that help keep sand and dust out of their eyes. They have a third eyelid which acts like a windshield wiper to wash sand out of their eyes. Thick bushy eyebrows shield the eyes from the desert sun. Their ears are lined with fur to keep sand from blowing into the ear canal. Even their nostrils close to keep out the sand.

Camels can drink up to 35 gallons of water in ten minutes! During the hottest time of the year, camels can survive for over a week without water and during cooler weather they can go as long as six months without drinking. To keep moisture in their body, camels don’t sweat much and they can raise their body temperature by as much as eleven degrees during the heat of the day.

Bactrian camel (Camelus

Distribution
The Arabian camel range is in Africa, notably the Sahara Desert, and the Middle East. There is a feral population in Australia.

Habitat
Deserts characterized by long dry seasons and short rainy season.

Conservation

IUCN Status: none, but this species has been considered “extinct” in the wild for the past 2,000 years. Arabian (dromedary) camels have been semi-domesticated for thousands of years and are not endangered.

Fun Facts
• 90% of the world’s camels are Arabian (dromedary) camels.
• Camels are used as beasts of burden but they also provide 11-17 pounds of wool and up to 1056 pints of milk per year. Camel milk is used to make butter and different kinds of cheese.
• Camels have a cleft in their upper lip to catch moisture from the nostrils.
• Camel hair is used to make clothing and tents for desert nomads.
• Camels can go 3 days (and sometimes longer!) without water.

Classification
Related to the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus), and the two can actually mate and produce viable hybrids, though they are thought to be sterile.
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Camelidae
Genus: Camelus
Species: dromedarius

Physical Description
• Arabian camels have a head-body length of about ten feet (3 meters).
• They weigh 1,000-1,450 pounds (450-650 kg). Males are larger than females.
• They have short fur ranging in color from beige to dark brown, with slightly lighter undersides.
• They have a single hump on the back.
• They have a small head with short, pointed ears and thick eyelashes.
• Their long, slender legs have calluses on the “knees” where they touch the ground when the camel is lying down.

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Brief Squid Under Water Specimens

Brief Squid Lolliguncula brevis

The brief squid was first identified by Blainville (1823) from specimens collected in Brazil. The scientific name was changed twice before Steenstrup (1881) returned the species to its original Lolliguncula brevis. This squid is relatively small, rarely exceeding 120 mm (4.7 inches) in mantle length; the standard measure of size is body without head and arms. Having rounded fins, the body is less streamlined than most oceanic squids. The brief squid is unique among cephalopods because it is an osmoconformer; that is, its body salinity matches ambient water salinity. Further, this species is capable of tolerating salinities as low as 8.5 ppt (parts per thousand), although it is more common in higher salinities (Hendrix et al. 1981; Laughlin and Livingston 1982).

Ogburn-Mathews and Allen (1993) found the brief squid to be the third most numerous component of trawl and seine samples collected in North Inlet, South Carolina. However, these researchers only found the species in estuarine waters from April through December. Squid were consistently collected together with bay anchovies, perhaps indicating a predator/prey relationship between the two species.

Brief Squid

Brief squid are relatively common in the nektonic community (water column) and make up a considerable portion of the estuarine biomass. Accordingly, the species is assumed to be important prey for carnivorous fishes, particularly given the popularity of squid as fish bait. Squid are also known to be cannibalistic, with adults feeding on juveniles (Whitaker 1978). As the squid increases in size, its prey preferences change. Small squid feed on benthic crustaceans and possibly small fish or fish larvae, whereas larger squid often feed on small fish, probably schooling species such as anchovies and silversides. In confinement, the species survives well on grass shrimp (Palaemonetes spp.) and small fishes such as killifishes (Fundulus spp.), livebearers (Poecillidae) and sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus) (Hanlon et-al 1983).

STATUS

As a common component of the nearshore and estuarine nektonic community of South Carolina, this species represents a considerable portion of the estuarine biomass and probably occupies a critical role in the estuarine food web. It is considered an indicator species for the health of this community type.

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

The geographic range of this species is from Maryland through Rio de la Plata, Argentina (Voss 1956). The species is common throughout the coastal waters of South Carolina, with all age classes, from small juveniles to adults, having been collected in trawl samples throughout the coastal zone. Because the species has planktonic juvenile stages, there is presumably a single population distributed along the South Carolina coast; however, this has not been specifically investigated. Unfortunately, there are inadequate long-term data sets to evaluate the population size and no long-term survey exists that can be used to assess population trends. Anecdotal information suggests the species has not declined significantly in abundance since the 1950s when the first scientific trawl samples were consistently taken.

HABITAT

Squid are most commonly found in salinities in excess of 17 ppt and are generally confined to the lower portions of estuaries where salinities are relatively high. No specific critical habitats have been established for the brief squid. The species is thought to be largely a nektonic inhabitant, although it seems to be associated more with bottom waters than with surface waters. Vecchione (1991) found catch rates of the squid’s paralarvae (a planktonic form that is anatomically identical to the adult) to be higher in bottom samples compared to samples taken in the upper portion of the water column. Ogburn-Mathews and Allen (1993) found the species to be more abundant over mud bottoms versus sand bottoms within inlets. Bartol et al. (2002) noted that in Chesapeake Bay, the brief squid was more common in central channel depths of 10 to 15m (33 to 49 feet) than in deeper waters.

Precise information on spawning locations is unknown. However, egg strings have been found in trawl samples taken in Charleston Harbor (pers. obs.). Cephaolopds typically attach egg strings to solid objects such as oyster shells, clam shells or other bare, solid objects. Egg strings have been observed on shallow mud flats in South Carolina, presumably attached to molluscan shells (M. Maddox, SCDNR, pers. comm., 18 March 1980).

CHALLENGES

Although the brief squid is relatively common in trawl and seine samples collected in South Carolina, there is no estimate of population size or trend. Additionally, the factors that may negatively affect brief squid populations and basic aspects of its life history are still unknown. Due to the prevalence of brief squid in the marine environment, it is an excellent indicator of the health of that environment.

Shrimp trawlers occasionally catch brief squid (pers. obs.); however, they are not likely captured in quantities that would threaten the sustainability of the species. The vast majority of squid utilized as bait and food in South Carolina is of the genus Loligo because it is larger in size and of a preferred texture; it s imported from California. Reported commercial landings of L. brevis in South Carolina have averaged less than a thousand pounds per year, probably all bycatch from the shrimp trawl fishery. The species has been part of the shrimp fishery bycatch for over fifty years and there appears to be no negative impacts upon the population due to trawling; however, population trends have not been specifically monitored (N. Jenkins, DNR Fisheries Statistics Program, pers. comm., 21 March 2005).

Brief squid probably rely on relatively clean water and appear to be linked to mud bottom habitats that are common in South Carolina. Hard structures for attachment of egg strings are important for the species and oyster and clam shell is abundant on estuarine bottoms. Reductions or alterations in river flow rates through out-of-basin transfers or diversions may negatively impact the brief squid. Presuming the species is estuarine-dependent, adequate quantities of fresh water flowing into estuaries may be necessary to maintain viable populations; although the species is common in North Inlet, which is a small system with very little freshwater inflow. Pollutants associated with terrestrial runoff are likely to be problematic for brief squid populations.

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Squid Spectacular Oceania Species

Squid are soft-bodied creatures belonging to phylum Mollusca, class Cephalopoda. Other members of this class include octopuses, cuttlefish and nautiluses. Cephalopods have large brains relative to their body size and are considered to be the most intelligent invertebrates. They also have well-developed eyes. Unlike an octopus, which has eight arms and no tentacles, a squid has eight arms and two tentacles. The inner surfaces of the arms are covered entirely with suckers, whereas the tentacles, which are longer, usually have suckers only at the end. To capture prey, a squid rapidly extends its tentacles, grasps the prey, then brings it to its mouth. A squid’s mouth is located in the center of its ring of arms and contains a hard beak that is used to bite off pieces of the prey.

The body of the squid is covered with skin containing pigment cells called chromatophores. Squid and other cephalopods have the amazing ability to control their chromatophores by contracting and relaxing the muscles around these cells. They can rapidly change from one color to another; some can become striped, and some can even undulate with color. They may change color and pattern as a warning or during different behaviors, such as feeding and mating. Squid have an ink sac that they use as a means of defense. They expel ink to confuse predators, then escape by jetting away.

Squid

Opalescent, or market, squid (Loligo opalescens) live along the Pacific coast of North America. They spend their days in deep waters, coming up to the surface at night to feed. Juvenile opalescent squid feed on plankton. Adult squid eat a variety of organisms, including fish, worms, shrimp and even other squid. They are preyed upon by many species of fish, sea birds and marine mammals. Much of this predation happens when the squid move inshore to spawn. During spawning, female squid attach capsules, each of which contains hundreds of eggs, to the sandy sea floor. The life span of these squid is short less than a year.

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Peron’s sea snake Acalyptophis Peroni and Eydoux’ Sea Snake;

Peron’s sea snake Acalyptophis Peroni  Horned sea snake

Peron’s sea snake is Maximum total length about 125 cm. Scale rows around neck 19 to 24 (rarely up to 27); scale rows around body 23 to 31 (rarely 21 or 32); ventrals 142 to 222. Maxillary teeth behind the poison-fangs 5 to 8. Often seen on the surface of reefs at medium depths. Feeds on Eleotridae and Gobiidae. Found in the Gulf of Thailand, Viet Nam, China, the Australian region, and New Caledonia; future investigations will probably reveal its presence in Indonesia.

Peron’s sea snake-Acalyptophis Peroni

Eydoux’ Sea Snake Aipysurus Eydouxii

Eydoux’ sea snake

Eydoux’ sea snake is Maximum total length about 115 cm. Scale rows around neck 17 (rarely 16); scale rows around body 17; ventrals 124 to 155, slightly notched on posterior border. Maxillary teeth behind the
poison-fangs 8 to 12, very small. Head shields regular. Feeds exclusively on benthic fish eggs. Caught by trawls from the surface to about 23 m; does not inhabit clear reef waters. East coast of Malayan Peninsular, Gulf of Thailand, Viet Nam, Philippines, Indonesia, and the Australian region. The only species of the genus Aipysurus which is caught outside the Australian region.

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SEA SNAKES Beutiful Dangerous

Sea snakes occur in the tropical and subtropical waters of the Indian and Pacific oceans from the east coast of Africa to the Gulf of Panama. Most species are found in the Indo-Malayan Archipelago, China seas, Indonesia, and the Australian region. They inhabit shallow waters along coasts and around islands, river mouths, and ascend into rivers up to more than 100 miles from the sea. They have also been found in lakes in Thailand, Cambodia, the Philippines, and Rennell Island (Smith, 1926; Dunson, 1975; Alcala, 1986; Ineich, 1996; pers. observ.). There is considerable variation in the number of species and species composition reported from the Western Central Pacific and precise information on geographical distribution for many species is still lacking. Most species feed on fish, a few prefer fish eggs, and a single species takes crustaceans and molluscs (Voris, 1972; Voris and Voris, 1983; McCosker in Dunson, 1975; Rasmussen, 1989, 1993). The genus Laticauda is oviparous (egg-laying) while all other sea snakes are viviparous (livebearing).

The most typical feature of a sea snake is the vertically flattened paddle-like tail, which is absent in all other aquatic or terrestrial snakes. However, the taxonomic status of “sea snakes” is still under review and there is no general agreement at the moment. Traditionally, sea snakes have been regarded as belonging to a single family, Hydrophiidae, with Laticauda as the most primitive genus. However, some experts consider that the Laticaudinae and Hydrophiinae evolved from different terrestrial representatives of the family Elapidae. Even more confusingly, some results indicate that the Hydrophiinae can be separated into 2 quite different groups, indicating that sea snakes may have evolved 3 times from terrestrial elapids (Rasmussen, 1997).

On a higher taxonomic level, all sea snakes are most closely related to terrestrial elapids, which include some of the most poisonous snakes of the world (e.g. brown snakes, taipan, death adder, cobra, Krait, mambas). Sea snakes (or aquatic elapids) and terrestrial elapids are both named “proteroglyphous snakes” because of the position of the poison-fangs in front of the upper jaw (maxillary bone).

Sea snake bite is the cause of fatalities in the Western Central Pacific. Typical victims are fishermen handling
gape nets, sorting fish on a trawler, or dragging a net while wading in muddy coastal waters or river mouths.
Some sea snakes are gentle, inoffensive creatures which bite only when provoked, but other species are much more aggressive (e.g. Aipysurus laevis, Astrotia stokesii, Enhydrina schistosa, Hydrophis ornatus) (Guinea, 1994; Heatwole and Cogger, 1994; Toriba, 1994; Warrell, 1994; pers. observ.). Even though sea snakes rarely inject much of their venom, so that frequently no or only trivial severity of poisoning is recognizable, all sea snakes should be handled with great caution.

If a snake bite has occurred, the following first-aid procedures are recommended: if the bite is on an arm or leg, a broad crepe bandage (or material of similar type) should be wrapped immediately around the area of the bite. The bandage must be very tight and extended over the entire arm or leg. Then a splint should be used to immobilize the arm or leg and hospital treatment must be sought as quick as possible. If the bite is on the body, firmly press the area of the bite and look for hospital treatment immediately.

Sea snakes are exploited for their skin, organs, and meat. Although some species are taken in great numbers
(e.g. Laticauda spp., Lapemis spp., and some Hydrophis spp.), they are not protected by CITES (Washington convention). Since 1934, meat and skin of sea snakes have been used commercially in the Philippines (Dunson, 1975) and local protection of sea snakes became necessary to avoid overexploitation. Sea snakes are also exploited in Australia, Japan, Taiwan Province of China, Thailand, and Viet Nam (Dunson, 1975; Warrell, 1994; Tim Ward, pers. comm., 1993; pers. observ.). The local government in Queensland, Australia has introduced a special licence to collect sea snakes. However, most sea-snake fisheries in the Indian and Pacific oceans have not been reported in the literature and are not controlled by local governments. With the exception of the Philippines, the impact of exploitation on populations of sea snakes is almost unknown and some populations may already be in danger of extinction.

Monitoring and control of the commercial catch is the only way to maintain a sustainable yield, giving local governments a chance to intervene before a catastrophic collapse of local populations occurs. However, management of sea-snake fisheries and protection of the endangered species is not possible without a basic knowledge of the group and the ability to identify to the species level. It is the purpose of the present contribution to provide a tool for correct identification of sea snakes in the Western Central Pacific. Nonetheless, the following identification keys must be regarded as tentative, due to the lack of distribution data from many regions and because there is no general agreement on the validity of certain species.

Identification of sea snakes to the species level is very difficult. The genus Hydrophis especially shows wide
interspecific variation which makes it difficult to exclusively use external characters for identification. For the
separation of genera, only characters that are visible without using a microscope are included in the keys. The shields on the head and the number of scale rows around the body are particularly important, as well as the shape of head, the size and number of ventral scales, and the position of the maxillary bone.

When counting scale rows around the neck and body it is important to remember that the count around the neck is a minimum count, while the count around the body is a maximum count. To be sure of the minimum
count around the neck it is necessary to count the scale rows 3 or 4 times, starting 1 ½ head lengths behind the head and then 2, 2 ½, and 3 head lengths behind the head. When counting scale rows around the body
the maximum count is normally found just behind the midbody. However, to be sure of the precise maximum
count it is helpful to count 3 or 4 times between midbody and anus. All scale rows are counted in a straight
line around the body, starting at a ventral and counting each scale along this line. The ventral is not included
in the scale-row count.

In the key to species of Hydrophis it was necessary to include the count of maxillary teeth behind the poison-fangs. Use a needle to push the gum around the teeth to above the maxillary bone and keep the gum in this position by fixing the needle at the roof of mouth (sometimes it is necessary to use 2 needles). A microsope is required to count the maxillary teeth.

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