Stingray Under Water Marine Park

Stingray

The smooth ray is the largest stingray in the world. When fully grown they can reach over 4m in length and weight over 350kg! Discover Stingray Bay, a relaxing coastal lagoon, in AQWA’s Marmion Marine Park. Stingrays have a barbed, venomous spine located on their tail. Stingrays don’t actually ‘sting’ to catch their food, but if provoked will use their barb out of defence. A close relative of the shark, stingrays have skeletons composed of cartilage. They are distinguished from sharks by a flattened body, which varies in shape from almost circular to diamond-shaped.

Stingrays have flat grinding teeth which they use to crush food, such as crabs. A stingray’s mouth is underneath its body, helping it to catch food on the sea floor. To propel themselves through the water stingrays, such as eagle rays ‘flap’ their side fins alike a bird. Other stingrays, such as the smooth ray, move their side fins in a wave like motion and can swim backwards! You can find stingrays in warm temperate and tropical ocean waters throughout the world. They spend most of their time near the sea floor and will hide buried underneath the sand. In Perth, you are most likely to see stingrays in shallow coastal areas.

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Clownfish and Nemo Fish In Habitat

Clownfish (family: Pomacentridae), also known as anemonefish, are some of the most iconic marine fish in the world. They are highly popular among SCUBA divers due to their striking colour combinations of white, orange, yellow and brown. There are a total of 28 species of clownfish, which are all very similar in their habits. Perhaps the most renowned of these is the Common Clownfish (Amphiprion ocellaris), which was popularised in the Walt Disney movie ‘Finding Nemo’.

Clownfish are found in tropical and subtropical areas of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The greatest diversity of clownfish is found close to Papua New Guinea, although the Great Barrier Reef in Australia is also known for a number of unique variants. Within their range, clownfish are restricted to shallow waters due to their fascinating relationship with only a handful of specific sea-anemone species upon which they depend. While most fish are repelled by the anemones’ poisonous stings, the clownfish acquires immunity to this defence, and is therefore able to use it for its own protection against predators. In return, clownfish keep their host anemone in a healthy state, and prevent them from being attacked by angelfishes and sea turtles, (which are also immune to the sea anemone’s stinging tentacles).

Nemo Fish

A single sea-anemone may support several clownfish, all of which, excluding one single female, are males at various stages of development. Should the sole female die, then the largest male turns into a female and continues breeding. Clownfish lay their eggs beneath the oral disc of their host sea anemone and these are guarded by the male. When the eggs hatch, larvae are carried away by ocean currents and most perish.
As a larva develops, it begins to use chemical signals present in the water to detect a suitable anemone to be used as its new home. These signals permit the young fish to select the right type of anemone, and ensure that it is different from its place of birth to avoid inbreeding. The period between hatching and seeking a new anemone ‘home’ is notably short (around 8–12 days), meaning that they do not disperse very far from their parents’ anemone.

The most significant impacts of climate change on clownfish are those affecting their coral reef habitat, and water temperature and chemistry. Such changes may affect clownfish in a number of ways.

Loss of habitat as coral reefs decline:
At today’s level of 387 ppm CO2, coral reefs are seriously declining and time-lagged effects will result in their continued demise. If CO2 levels are allowed to reach 450 ppm (due to occur by 2030–2040 at the current rates of increase), reefs will be in rapid and terminal decline world-wide from multiple synergies arising from mass bleaching, ocean acidification, and other environmental impacts (more details are available in the staghorn coral account).

Clownfish depend on sea-anemones, which are most frequently found on coral reefs. Reef-dependent species such as the clownfish will undoubtedly be affected by the decline in coral reefs. In 1998, one of the most severe global coral bleaching events in recorded history led to the complete disappearance of several sea-anemone species used by clownfish in the corals reefs around Sesoko Island, Japan, causing local population declines.

Clown Fish

Disruption of navigation as ocean acidity rises:
Increases in ocean acidity levels have been shown to affect clownfish’s ability to detect the chemical signals necessary for navigating to and locating their anemone homes. This effect is known to be particularly severe in juvenile fish. Fish that are unable to locate a suitable hiding place are at a much higher risk of predation, and are much less likely to find other clownfish with which to mate.

Juvenile fish that are unable to locate new anemones to inhabit also have a much greater chance of returning to their original place of birth. While such individuals may be considered fortunate for at least finding protection, the likelihood of inbreeding in these fish is greatly increased. Adult clownfish, although less susceptible to the loss of chemical cues, can still become confused and lost when venturing away from their host anemone. An extended period away from their host commonly leads to the loss of their immunity to their anemones’ poison, and a much greater risk of predation. In order to regain this immunity, the fish must perform an elaborate ‘dance’, which may last up to several hours and further increases the chances of predation.

Ocean warming changes development rates:
All fish are ‘cold-blooded’ or ectothermic, which means that all aspects of their life-history are highly influenced by the surrounding water temperature. As ocean temperatures continue to increase we may expect to see a number of effects on clownfish. Juvenile clownfish have been shown to develop faster as water temperatures increase (assuming sufficient food is available). There are potential immediate benefits to individuals such as faster reproductive turnover, but more rapid growth will generally mean that individuals disperse shorter distances from their parents’ anemone before their development stage triggers the instinct to find their own anemone. The resulting decrease in dispersal distances means greater competition for local dwelling places, greater chance of predation and increased inbreeding.

A further threat to clownfish associated with warming ocean temperatures relates to their reproductive behaviour. Clownfish (as with many other fish species) are known to only reproduce within a very small temperature range. It follows, therefore, that an increase in temperature could discourage clownfish from breeding. High temperatures have also been shown to cause eggs to perish. Either of these outcomes, or a combination of the two, could have disastrous consequences for clownfish. In summary, a combination of habitat loss, disruption of their olfactory senses and direct effects to their physiology makes clownfish particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change.

Clownfish and Nemo Fish

Clownfish Adapt to Climate

As ocean temperatures warm, clownfish may be forced to shift their ranges polewards to find cooler water. However, clownfish larvae travel only short distances from their parents’ anemone, and increased development rates caused by warming, coupled with the need for parallel dispersal in interdependent sea-anemone species, is likely to limit dispersal further.
To avoid the negative effects of warming on reproduction and egg survival, clownfish could potentially adapt behaviourally to time such events during cooler periods or seasons. However, the potential for such changes in clownfish are, as yet, unexplored. The problems caused to clownfish by habitat loss will require movement to new areas of suitable habitat.

Obviously such areas will be limited in number and, once again owing to the poor mobility of the species, will only be accessible if they are relatively close by. One species of clownfish has recently been shown to use soft corals as an alternative habitat, something only ever previously witnessed in captivity. Whether such behaviour could be adopted by other species of clownfish, and, if so, whether it would serve to alleviate pressure on clownfish, is currently unclear.

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Arabian Camel Pets and Animal

Camel Camelus dromedarius


Arabian camels form groups of two to 20 individuals consisting of one dominant male, several adult females plus sub-adults and young. The dominant male of the family will protect the females from stray males, and also directs the family from the rear when moving with the females who take turns leading. Female camels are sexually mature at three to four years and males at five to six years. Mating occurs during the rutting season which is during the wet months at the beginning of the year. After a gestation of about 15 months, females give birth to a single calf weighing about 80 pounds (37 kg). The calf’s eyes are open at birth and its body is covered with a thick woolly coat. Calves can run when they are only a few hours old. The calf nurses for up to 18 months. Life span is about 40 years in the wild and up to 50 years in captivity.

Camel Camelus dromedarius

Adaptations

Arabian (dromedary) camels have a single hump – like the letter “D”. The hump is used to store fat not water. The fat can be converted to energy when needed. The Bactrian camel has two humps like the letter “B”. Camels are called “Ships of the Desert” because they are uniquely adapted to survive the harsh conditions of the desert habitat. They have large flat feet with leathery pads and two toes on each foot. When the camel places its foot on the ground the pads spread out preventing the foot from sinking into the sand. Their eyes are protected by a double row of long curly eyelashes that help keep sand and dust out of their eyes. They have a third eyelid which acts like a windshield wiper to wash sand out of their eyes. Thick bushy eyebrows shield the eyes from the desert sun. Their ears are lined with fur to keep sand from blowing into the ear canal. Even their nostrils close to keep out the sand.

Camels can drink up to 35 gallons of water in ten minutes! During the hottest time of the year, camels can survive for over a week without water and during cooler weather they can go as long as six months without drinking. To keep moisture in their body, camels don’t sweat much and they can raise their body temperature by as much as eleven degrees during the heat of the day.

Bactrian camel (Camelus

Distribution
The Arabian camel range is in Africa, notably the Sahara Desert, and the Middle East. There is a feral population in Australia.

Habitat
Deserts characterized by long dry seasons and short rainy season.

Conservation

IUCN Status: none, but this species has been considered “extinct” in the wild for the past 2,000 years. Arabian (dromedary) camels have been semi-domesticated for thousands of years and are not endangered.

Fun Facts
• 90% of the world’s camels are Arabian (dromedary) camels.
• Camels are used as beasts of burden but they also provide 11-17 pounds of wool and up to 1056 pints of milk per year. Camel milk is used to make butter and different kinds of cheese.
• Camels have a cleft in their upper lip to catch moisture from the nostrils.
• Camel hair is used to make clothing and tents for desert nomads.
• Camels can go 3 days (and sometimes longer!) without water.

Classification
Related to the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus), and the two can actually mate and produce viable hybrids, though they are thought to be sterile.
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Camelidae
Genus: Camelus
Species: dromedarius

Physical Description
• Arabian camels have a head-body length of about ten feet (3 meters).
• They weigh 1,000-1,450 pounds (450-650 kg). Males are larger than females.
• They have short fur ranging in color from beige to dark brown, with slightly lighter undersides.
• They have a single hump on the back.
• They have a small head with short, pointed ears and thick eyelashes.
• Their long, slender legs have calluses on the “knees” where they touch the ground when the camel is lying down.

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Brief Squid Under Water Specimens

Brief Squid Lolliguncula brevis

The brief squid was first identified by Blainville (1823) from specimens collected in Brazil. The scientific name was changed twice before Steenstrup (1881) returned the species to its original Lolliguncula brevis. This squid is relatively small, rarely exceeding 120 mm (4.7 inches) in mantle length; the standard measure of size is body without head and arms. Having rounded fins, the body is less streamlined than most oceanic squids. The brief squid is unique among cephalopods because it is an osmoconformer; that is, its body salinity matches ambient water salinity. Further, this species is capable of tolerating salinities as low as 8.5 ppt (parts per thousand), although it is more common in higher salinities (Hendrix et al. 1981; Laughlin and Livingston 1982).

Ogburn-Mathews and Allen (1993) found the brief squid to be the third most numerous component of trawl and seine samples collected in North Inlet, South Carolina. However, these researchers only found the species in estuarine waters from April through December. Squid were consistently collected together with bay anchovies, perhaps indicating a predator/prey relationship between the two species.

Brief Squid

Brief squid are relatively common in the nektonic community (water column) and make up a considerable portion of the estuarine biomass. Accordingly, the species is assumed to be important prey for carnivorous fishes, particularly given the popularity of squid as fish bait. Squid are also known to be cannibalistic, with adults feeding on juveniles (Whitaker 1978). As the squid increases in size, its prey preferences change. Small squid feed on benthic crustaceans and possibly small fish or fish larvae, whereas larger squid often feed on small fish, probably schooling species such as anchovies and silversides. In confinement, the species survives well on grass shrimp (Palaemonetes spp.) and small fishes such as killifishes (Fundulus spp.), livebearers (Poecillidae) and sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus) (Hanlon et-al 1983).

STATUS

As a common component of the nearshore and estuarine nektonic community of South Carolina, this species represents a considerable portion of the estuarine biomass and probably occupies a critical role in the estuarine food web. It is considered an indicator species for the health of this community type.

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

The geographic range of this species is from Maryland through Rio de la Plata, Argentina (Voss 1956). The species is common throughout the coastal waters of South Carolina, with all age classes, from small juveniles to adults, having been collected in trawl samples throughout the coastal zone. Because the species has planktonic juvenile stages, there is presumably a single population distributed along the South Carolina coast; however, this has not been specifically investigated. Unfortunately, there are inadequate long-term data sets to evaluate the population size and no long-term survey exists that can be used to assess population trends. Anecdotal information suggests the species has not declined significantly in abundance since the 1950s when the first scientific trawl samples were consistently taken.

HABITAT

Squid are most commonly found in salinities in excess of 17 ppt and are generally confined to the lower portions of estuaries where salinities are relatively high. No specific critical habitats have been established for the brief squid. The species is thought to be largely a nektonic inhabitant, although it seems to be associated more with bottom waters than with surface waters. Vecchione (1991) found catch rates of the squid’s paralarvae (a planktonic form that is anatomically identical to the adult) to be higher in bottom samples compared to samples taken in the upper portion of the water column. Ogburn-Mathews and Allen (1993) found the species to be more abundant over mud bottoms versus sand bottoms within inlets. Bartol et al. (2002) noted that in Chesapeake Bay, the brief squid was more common in central channel depths of 10 to 15m (33 to 49 feet) than in deeper waters.

Precise information on spawning locations is unknown. However, egg strings have been found in trawl samples taken in Charleston Harbor (pers. obs.). Cephaolopds typically attach egg strings to solid objects such as oyster shells, clam shells or other bare, solid objects. Egg strings have been observed on shallow mud flats in South Carolina, presumably attached to molluscan shells (M. Maddox, SCDNR, pers. comm., 18 March 1980).

CHALLENGES

Although the brief squid is relatively common in trawl and seine samples collected in South Carolina, there is no estimate of population size or trend. Additionally, the factors that may negatively affect brief squid populations and basic aspects of its life history are still unknown. Due to the prevalence of brief squid in the marine environment, it is an excellent indicator of the health of that environment.

Shrimp trawlers occasionally catch brief squid (pers. obs.); however, they are not likely captured in quantities that would threaten the sustainability of the species. The vast majority of squid utilized as bait and food in South Carolina is of the genus Loligo because it is larger in size and of a preferred texture; it s imported from California. Reported commercial landings of L. brevis in South Carolina have averaged less than a thousand pounds per year, probably all bycatch from the shrimp trawl fishery. The species has been part of the shrimp fishery bycatch for over fifty years and there appears to be no negative impacts upon the population due to trawling; however, population trends have not been specifically monitored (N. Jenkins, DNR Fisheries Statistics Program, pers. comm., 21 March 2005).

Brief squid probably rely on relatively clean water and appear to be linked to mud bottom habitats that are common in South Carolina. Hard structures for attachment of egg strings are important for the species and oyster and clam shell is abundant on estuarine bottoms. Reductions or alterations in river flow rates through out-of-basin transfers or diversions may negatively impact the brief squid. Presuming the species is estuarine-dependent, adequate quantities of fresh water flowing into estuaries may be necessary to maintain viable populations; although the species is common in North Inlet, which is a small system with very little freshwater inflow. Pollutants associated with terrestrial runoff are likely to be problematic for brief squid populations.

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Squid Spectacular Oceania Species

Squid are soft-bodied creatures belonging to phylum Mollusca, class Cephalopoda. Other members of this class include octopuses, cuttlefish and nautiluses. Cephalopods have large brains relative to their body size and are considered to be the most intelligent invertebrates. They also have well-developed eyes. Unlike an octopus, which has eight arms and no tentacles, a squid has eight arms and two tentacles. The inner surfaces of the arms are covered entirely with suckers, whereas the tentacles, which are longer, usually have suckers only at the end. To capture prey, a squid rapidly extends its tentacles, grasps the prey, then brings it to its mouth. A squid’s mouth is located in the center of its ring of arms and contains a hard beak that is used to bite off pieces of the prey.

The body of the squid is covered with skin containing pigment cells called chromatophores. Squid and other cephalopods have the amazing ability to control their chromatophores by contracting and relaxing the muscles around these cells. They can rapidly change from one color to another; some can become striped, and some can even undulate with color. They may change color and pattern as a warning or during different behaviors, such as feeding and mating. Squid have an ink sac that they use as a means of defense. They expel ink to confuse predators, then escape by jetting away.

Squid

Opalescent, or market, squid (Loligo opalescens) live along the Pacific coast of North America. They spend their days in deep waters, coming up to the surface at night to feed. Juvenile opalescent squid feed on plankton. Adult squid eat a variety of organisms, including fish, worms, shrimp and even other squid. They are preyed upon by many species of fish, sea birds and marine mammals. Much of this predation happens when the squid move inshore to spawn. During spawning, female squid attach capsules, each of which contains hundreds of eggs, to the sandy sea floor. The life span of these squid is short less than a year.

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Peron’s sea snake Acalyptophis Peroni and Eydoux’ Sea Snake;

Peron’s sea snake Acalyptophis Peroni  Horned sea snake

Peron’s sea snake is Maximum total length about 125 cm. Scale rows around neck 19 to 24 (rarely up to 27); scale rows around body 23 to 31 (rarely 21 or 32); ventrals 142 to 222. Maxillary teeth behind the poison-fangs 5 to 8. Often seen on the surface of reefs at medium depths. Feeds on Eleotridae and Gobiidae. Found in the Gulf of Thailand, Viet Nam, China, the Australian region, and New Caledonia; future investigations will probably reveal its presence in Indonesia.

Peron’s sea snake-Acalyptophis Peroni

Eydoux’ Sea Snake Aipysurus Eydouxii

Eydoux’ sea snake

Eydoux’ sea snake is Maximum total length about 115 cm. Scale rows around neck 17 (rarely 16); scale rows around body 17; ventrals 124 to 155, slightly notched on posterior border. Maxillary teeth behind the
poison-fangs 8 to 12, very small. Head shields regular. Feeds exclusively on benthic fish eggs. Caught by trawls from the surface to about 23 m; does not inhabit clear reef waters. East coast of Malayan Peninsular, Gulf of Thailand, Viet Nam, Philippines, Indonesia, and the Australian region. The only species of the genus Aipysurus which is caught outside the Australian region.

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SEA SNAKES Beutiful Dangerous

Sea snakes occur in the tropical and subtropical waters of the Indian and Pacific oceans from the east coast of Africa to the Gulf of Panama. Most species are found in the Indo-Malayan Archipelago, China seas, Indonesia, and the Australian region. They inhabit shallow waters along coasts and around islands, river mouths, and ascend into rivers up to more than 100 miles from the sea. They have also been found in lakes in Thailand, Cambodia, the Philippines, and Rennell Island (Smith, 1926; Dunson, 1975; Alcala, 1986; Ineich, 1996; pers. observ.). There is considerable variation in the number of species and species composition reported from the Western Central Pacific and precise information on geographical distribution for many species is still lacking. Most species feed on fish, a few prefer fish eggs, and a single species takes crustaceans and molluscs (Voris, 1972; Voris and Voris, 1983; McCosker in Dunson, 1975; Rasmussen, 1989, 1993). The genus Laticauda is oviparous (egg-laying) while all other sea snakes are viviparous (livebearing).

The most typical feature of a sea snake is the vertically flattened paddle-like tail, which is absent in all other aquatic or terrestrial snakes. However, the taxonomic status of “sea snakes” is still under review and there is no general agreement at the moment. Traditionally, sea snakes have been regarded as belonging to a single family, Hydrophiidae, with Laticauda as the most primitive genus. However, some experts consider that the Laticaudinae and Hydrophiinae evolved from different terrestrial representatives of the family Elapidae. Even more confusingly, some results indicate that the Hydrophiinae can be separated into 2 quite different groups, indicating that sea snakes may have evolved 3 times from terrestrial elapids (Rasmussen, 1997).

On a higher taxonomic level, all sea snakes are most closely related to terrestrial elapids, which include some of the most poisonous snakes of the world (e.g. brown snakes, taipan, death adder, cobra, Krait, mambas). Sea snakes (or aquatic elapids) and terrestrial elapids are both named “proteroglyphous snakes” because of the position of the poison-fangs in front of the upper jaw (maxillary bone).

Sea snake bite is the cause of fatalities in the Western Central Pacific. Typical victims are fishermen handling
gape nets, sorting fish on a trawler, or dragging a net while wading in muddy coastal waters or river mouths.
Some sea snakes are gentle, inoffensive creatures which bite only when provoked, but other species are much more aggressive (e.g. Aipysurus laevis, Astrotia stokesii, Enhydrina schistosa, Hydrophis ornatus) (Guinea, 1994; Heatwole and Cogger, 1994; Toriba, 1994; Warrell, 1994; pers. observ.). Even though sea snakes rarely inject much of their venom, so that frequently no or only trivial severity of poisoning is recognizable, all sea snakes should be handled with great caution.

If a snake bite has occurred, the following first-aid procedures are recommended: if the bite is on an arm or leg, a broad crepe bandage (or material of similar type) should be wrapped immediately around the area of the bite. The bandage must be very tight and extended over the entire arm or leg. Then a splint should be used to immobilize the arm or leg and hospital treatment must be sought as quick as possible. If the bite is on the body, firmly press the area of the bite and look for hospital treatment immediately.

Sea snakes are exploited for their skin, organs, and meat. Although some species are taken in great numbers
(e.g. Laticauda spp., Lapemis spp., and some Hydrophis spp.), they are not protected by CITES (Washington convention). Since 1934, meat and skin of sea snakes have been used commercially in the Philippines (Dunson, 1975) and local protection of sea snakes became necessary to avoid overexploitation. Sea snakes are also exploited in Australia, Japan, Taiwan Province of China, Thailand, and Viet Nam (Dunson, 1975; Warrell, 1994; Tim Ward, pers. comm., 1993; pers. observ.). The local government in Queensland, Australia has introduced a special licence to collect sea snakes. However, most sea-snake fisheries in the Indian and Pacific oceans have not been reported in the literature and are not controlled by local governments. With the exception of the Philippines, the impact of exploitation on populations of sea snakes is almost unknown and some populations may already be in danger of extinction.

Monitoring and control of the commercial catch is the only way to maintain a sustainable yield, giving local governments a chance to intervene before a catastrophic collapse of local populations occurs. However, management of sea-snake fisheries and protection of the endangered species is not possible without a basic knowledge of the group and the ability to identify to the species level. It is the purpose of the present contribution to provide a tool for correct identification of sea snakes in the Western Central Pacific. Nonetheless, the following identification keys must be regarded as tentative, due to the lack of distribution data from many regions and because there is no general agreement on the validity of certain species.

Identification of sea snakes to the species level is very difficult. The genus Hydrophis especially shows wide
interspecific variation which makes it difficult to exclusively use external characters for identification. For the
separation of genera, only characters that are visible without using a microscope are included in the keys. The shields on the head and the number of scale rows around the body are particularly important, as well as the shape of head, the size and number of ventral scales, and the position of the maxillary bone.

When counting scale rows around the neck and body it is important to remember that the count around the neck is a minimum count, while the count around the body is a maximum count. To be sure of the minimum
count around the neck it is necessary to count the scale rows 3 or 4 times, starting 1 ½ head lengths behind the head and then 2, 2 ½, and 3 head lengths behind the head. When counting scale rows around the body
the maximum count is normally found just behind the midbody. However, to be sure of the precise maximum
count it is helpful to count 3 or 4 times between midbody and anus. All scale rows are counted in a straight
line around the body, starting at a ventral and counting each scale along this line. The ventral is not included
in the scale-row count.

In the key to species of Hydrophis it was necessary to include the count of maxillary teeth behind the poison-fangs. Use a needle to push the gum around the teeth to above the maxillary bone and keep the gum in this position by fixing the needle at the roof of mouth (sometimes it is necessary to use 2 needles). A microsope is required to count the maxillary teeth.

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